Environmental and Engineering Geophysics

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ISBN: 9780521576321 | 0521576326
Cover: Paperback
Copyright: 12/13/1997

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Geophysical imaging methods provide solutions to a wide range of environmental and engineering problems: protection of soil and groundwater from contamination; disposal of chemical and nuclear waste; geotechnical site testing; landslide and ground subsidence hazard detection; location of archaeological artefacts. This book comprehensively describes the theory, data acquisition and interpretation of all of the principal techniques of geophysical surveying: gravity, magnetic, seismic, self-potential, resistivity, induced polarization, electromagnetic, ground-probing radar, radioactivity, geothermal, and geophysical borehole logging. A final chapter is devoted to inversion theory and tomography. Each chapter is supported by a large number of richly illustrated case histories. This book will prove to be a valuable course-book for advanced undergraduates and postgraduates in environmental and applied geophysics, a supplementary course-book for students of geology, engineering geophysics, civil and mining engineering, and a reference work for professional earth scientists, engineers and town planners.

Preface

xxi

Acknowledgments

xxiii

Introductory observations

(10)

Geophysics and the earth's environment

(1)

Geophysical techniques for near-surface studies

(1)

Environmental problems amenable to solution by geophysical means

(1)

Engineering geophysical investigations: targets and techniques

(1)

Units used in this book

(3)

Geological time-scale

(4)

References

(1)

Gravity surveying

(54)

Introduction

(1)

Characteristics of potential fields

(3)

Gravitational force, potential, and field

(2)

Laplace's equation and Poisson's theorem

(1)

Rock densities

(1)

Acquisition and correction of gravity data

(12)

Gravity measuring instruments

(5)

Survey procedures

(1)

Location and spacing of stations; positions and elevations of stations; gravity gradient survey

Corrections to gravity data

(3)

Free-air and Bouguer anomalies

(1)

In-situ determination of density

(2)

Analysis and interpretation of gravity data

(15)

General considerations

(1)

Ambiguity in gravity interpretation

(1)

Isolation of anomalies: regionals and residuals

(2)

Enhancement of anomalies

(5)

Digital filtering; wavelength filters; continuation filters; derivative filters

Estimates of depth and anomalous mass

(3)

Methodology of interpretation

(4)

General approach; forward modeling; inverse modeling

Applications to environmental and engineering studies

(22)

Delineation of structural trends, contacts, and faults

(2)

Mapping of salt structures

(2)

Estimating shape and depth of plutons

(1)

Mapping of alluvium/bedrock contact

(4)

Gravity investigations of landfill

(2)

Microgravity studies of rockbursts in mines

(2)

Microgravity detection of subsurface voids and cavities

(5)

References

(4)

Magnetic surveying

(47)

Introduction

(1)

Physical basis of magnetic surveys

(6)

Magnetic quantities and units

(3)

Magnetic potential and field; intensity of magnetization and moment

Dipole field and the geomagnetic anomaly

(3)

Magnetic properties of rocks and soils

(4)

Induced magnetization and susceptibility

(2)

Remanent magnetization

(1)

Total magnetization and effective susceptibility

(1)

Magnetic effects of soils and iron objects

(1)

Acquisition of magnetic data

(8)

Magnetic survey instruments

(4)

Survey procedures and data correction

(4)

Data enhancement techniques

(3)

Derivatives and continuation filters

(1)

Reduction-to-pole and pseudogravity transformation

(2)

Analytic signal of magnetic anomaly field

(1)

Approximate methods of interpretation

(6)

Estimation of depth

(3)

Estimates of direction of magnetization and source boundaries

(3)

Quantitative interpretation of magnetic data

(2)

Forward modeling

(2)

Inversion of magnetic data

(1)

Environmental and engineering applications

(18)

Mapping of structural trends and basement features

(2)

Magnetic investigations over landfills

(4)

Detection of buried metal drums and casings

100

(1)

Mapping of cavities and voids

101

(4)

Mapping of dikes blocking groundwater flow

105

(1)

Detection of archaeological objects

105

(3)

References

108

(4)

Seismic surveys

112

(78)

Introduction

112

(1)

Elastic waves and propagation parameters

113

(6)

Body and surface waves

113

(3)

Pulse frequency, and attenuation characteristics

116

(1)

Reflection, refraction, and diffraction of waves

117

(2)

Seismic velocities in rocks

119

(4)

Factors affecting velocity

120

(1)

Velocity-density and velocity-porosity relationships

120

(2)

Velocity data

122

(1)

Reflection surveying

123

(35)

Introduction

123

(1)

Data acquisition in shallow seismics

124

(6)

Seismic sources; geophones and arrays; seismographs and filters; field parameters

Reflection geometry and the concept of NMO Horizontal reflectors; dipping reflector

130

(4)

Common-depth point (CDP) technique

134

(1)

Static and dynamic corrections

135

(2)

Static corrections; dynamic or NMO corrections

Determination of average velocities

137

(2)

T2--x2 method; velocity-spectrum method; well-shooting and CVL methods

Synthesis of reflection traces

139

(1)

Processing of reflection data

140

(2)

Migration of reflection points

142

(1)

Shallow reflection profiling: CDP and COF techniques

143

(5)

Optimum offset technique

Resolution limits in reflection mapping

148

(1)

Applications to environmental and engineering problems

149

(9)

Mapping of fracture zones; reflection profiling in groundwater studies; delineation of bedrock valleys; detection of shallow faults and cavities

Refraction surveying

158

(32)

Introduction

158

(1)

Mapping of horizontal interfaces: intercept time method

158

(3)

Horizontal versus vertical velocity changes

161

(1)

Mapping of faults and steep contacts

162

(2)

Mapping of dipping interfaces

164

(2)

Mapping irregular (non-planar) interfaces

166

(4)

Interpretation by generalized reciprocal method

170

(3)

Refraction survey data acquisition

173

(1)

Applicability and limitations of the refraction method

173

(2)

Environmental and engineering applications

175

(11)

Velocity as a guide to rock strength; detection of potential collapse features; mapping of buried ancient ditch; mapping of gravel and sand deposits; dam site investigations

References

186

(4)

Self-potential surveying

190

(17)

Introduction

190

(1)

Origin of self-potentials

190

(3)

Electrofiltration; thermoelectric; electrochemical; mineralization

Data acquisition and noise suppression

193

(3)

Field procedure

193

(1)

Noise suppression and data enhancement

194

(2)

Interpretation of SP data

196

(3)

Applications to environmental and engineering problems

199

(8)

Seepage flow in a landslide body

199

(2)

Seepage flow in dams and reservoir floors

201

(1)

Delineation of groundwater flow

201

(2)

Studies of geothermal fluid flow

203

(2)

References

205

(2)

Resistivity and induced polarization surveys

207

(58)

Introduction

207

(1)

Electrical resistivity of earth materials

208

(1)

Theory of current flow in the ground

209

(11)

Potential distribution in homogeneous ground

209

(3)

Apparent resistivity and electrode configurations

212

(2)

Potential and current distribution across a boundary

214

(4)

Computation of apparent resistivity by linear filters

218

(2)

Field procedures and selection of electrode array

220

(6)

Electric sounding and profiling procedures

220

(4)

Vertical electric sounding; electric profiling

Selecting an array for a particular application

224

(2)

Resistivity instruments and electrode layouts

226

(2)

Interpretation of resistivity data

228

(9)

General

228

(1)

Interpretation by master curves and auxiliary graphs

229

(2)

Forward and inverse modeling techniques

231

(1)

Ambiguity in interpretation of sounding curves

232

(1)

Interpretation of lateral resistivity contrasts

233

(2)

Interpretation of combined electric profiling and sounding

235

(2)

Applications of resistivity surveys

237

(15)

Groundwater exploration and water quality

237

(5)

Delineation of aquifer boundaries in sedimentary layers; groundwater in fissured rocks; mapping boundaries of saline groundwater

Examples of environmental and engineering applications

242

(7)

Mapping of chemical pollution plumes; delineation of water-saturated zones in landslide bodies; location of permafrost zones; location of archaeological objects; location of cavities and voids

Resistivity characteristics of geothermal fluids

249

(3)

Induced polarization method

252

(13)

Principles

252

(2)

Time-domain and frequency-domain measurements

254

(1)

Data acquisition

254

(2)

Equipment; field procedures

Interpretation of IP data

256

(1)

Examples of applications to environmental studies

257

(1)

Evaluation of aquifer potential; investigation of domestic waste dump; mapping of industrial contamination

258

(3)

References

261

(4)

Electromagnetic surveys

265

(44)

Introduction

265

(1)

Theory of propagation of EM fields

266

(6)

Fundamental quantities and field equations

266

(2)

Attenuation of EM fields, and depth penetration

268

(2)

Phase relations and elliptic polarization of EM fields

270

(2)

Classification of EM methods

272

(1)

Continuous wave field methods (frequency-domain EM)

273

(13)

VLF and VLF--R methods

273

(1)

Conventional VLF; VLF-resistivity method

273

(4)

Horizontal loop (Slingram) method

277

(3)

Ground conductivity meters

280

(2)

Examples of applications to environmental problems

282

(4)

Delineation of contamination plume from waste dumps; mapping industrial groundwater contamination; mapping soil salinity in farmland

Transient-field methods (time-domain EM)

286

(2)

Principles and operational designs

286

(2)

Interpretation of TDEM data

288

(1)

Examples of environmental studies

288

(5)

Mapping of contamination plume at a landfill site; mapping of brine pockets at a waste repository site

Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) method

292

(1)

Interpretation of EM data

293

(3)

Use of interpretational aids

293

(3)

Ambiguity in EM interpretation

296

(1)

Magnetotelluric methods

296

(6)

Principles of MT sounding

297

(1)

AMT and CSAMT methods

298

(1)

Inversion of AMT data

298

(2)

Examples of AMT surveys

300

(1)

Mapping of permafrost zones; AMT investigations in geothermal areas

300

(2)

Radio imaging method (RIM)

302

(7)

Principles and practices

302

(2)

Example of imaging a fault zone

304

(2)

References

306

(3)

Ground-probing radar

309

(21)

Introduction

309

(1)

Basic principles

310

(3)

Radar propagation parameters

310

(1)

Range and resolution

311

(2)

Data acquisition and processing

313

(1)

Determination of radar velocities

314

(2)

Examples of environmental and engineering applications

316

(14)

Detection of fracture zones

316

(2)

Delineation of subsurface oil contamination

318

(2)

Mapping of geological contacts in frozen ground

320

(1)

Location of sinkholes and cavities

321

(1)

Detection of anomalous seepage

322

(1)

Mapping of archaeological remnants

323

(2)

Non-destructive testing of rock quality and structural integrity

325

(3)

References

328

(2)

Radioactivity surveys

330

(22)

Introduction

330

(1)

Fundamentals of radioactive disintegration

331

(1)

Units of radiation and dosage

332

(1)

Radioactive decay series and equilibrium

333

(1)

Radioactivity of rocks

334

(1)

Instruments for measuring radioactivity

335

(2)

Geiger counter and scintillometer

335

(1)

Gamma-ray spectrometer

336

(1)

Radon emanometers

337

(1)

Field procedure and operational considerations

337

(1)

Environmental concerns about radon

338

(2)

Generation of radon

338

(1)

Radon transport mechanisms

339

(1)

Radon-risk index

340

(1)

Examples of environmental radioactivity surveys

340

(12)

Assessment of indoor radon risk and groundwater contamination

341

(2)

Radiation from industrial and domestic waste pumps

343

(2)

Chernobyl radioactive fallout

345

(2)

Detection of faults and fracture zones

347

(1)

Radon-monitoring applied to earthquake prediction

347

(1)

Investigations of landslide development

348

(1)

Monitoring of radioactive contamination migration in subsurface

349

(1)

References

350

(2)

Geothermal surveying

352

(23)

Introduction

352

(1)

Thermal properties of rocks

353

(1)

Propagation of thermal effects in the underground region

353

(4)

Depth penetration of surface temperature variations

353

(3)

Temperature distribution in the frozen ground

356

(1)

Conductive heat flow and thermal gradient

357

(3)

Heat-flow measurements

357

(1)

Factors affecting thermal gradient

358

(2)

Heat production in crustal rocks

360

(1)

Temperature rise due to radioactive disposal in subsurface

361

(4)

Shallow thermal investigation methods

365

(1)

Shallow temperature surveys

365

(1)

Snow-melt photography and infrared imagery

366

(1)

Examples of shallow thermal surveys

366

(9)

Mapping of fissures and cracks

366

(1)

Location of leakage in pipelines

367

(1)

Thermal anomalies over salt and granite bodies

368

(2)

Temperature anomalies over waste dumps

370

(1)

Thermal detection of zones of weakness and leakage in dams

370

(2)

References

372

(3)

Geophysical borehole logging

375

(25)

Introduction

375

(1)

General aspects of logging systems

376

(1)

Conventional borehole logging techniques in environmental investigations

376

(12)

Caliper logs

377

(1)

Electrical logs

377

(3)

Radiometric logs

380

(4)

Acoustic logs

384

(2)

Temperature logs

386

(2)

Specialized techniques for micrologging and fluid flow detection

388

(7)

The Ellog auger method

388

(1)

Microresistivity logging

389

(2)

Borehole televiewer log

391

(1)

Full waveform acoustic logging (FWAL)

392

(1)

Chemical/Radioactive tracer logs

393

(2)

Cross-borehole tomography for fracture and fluid flow detection

395

(5)

References

398

(2)

Inversion theory and tomography

400

(52)

Introduction

400

(1)

The inverse problem and its formulation

400

(2)

Linear inverse problems and methods of solution

402

(5)

The Fourier method of linear inversion

402

(2)

The matrix method applied to linear problems

404

(3)

Inverse calculations of density or magnetization; residual statics estimation

Non-linear problems and methods of solution

407

(2)

Linearization of the non-linear problem

407

(1)

Unconstrained and constrained iterative solutions

408

(1)

Sample applications to non-linear problems

409

(16)

Inversion of gravity and magnetic data

409

(6)

2-D interpretation; 3-D interpretation

Inversion of vertical electric sounding data

415

(4)

1-D, using partial derivatives; 1-D, using Zohdy's technique; 2-D interpretation

Inversion of electromagnetic data

419

(6)

1-D methods; 2-D methods

Introduction to tomography

425

(5)

The basic concept of tomography

425

(2)

Tomography in exploration geophysics

427

(1)

Radon transform

428

(2)

Discretization methods in tomography

430

(6)

Generalized matrix method

431

(2)

Algebraic reconstruction technique (ART)

433

(3)

Simultaneous iterative reconstruction technique (SIRT)

436

(1)

Transform methods of image reconstruction

436

(9)

Fourier projection method

437

(2)

Filtered back-projection (FBP) method

439

(1)

Wave diffraction method

439

(5)

EM diffraction tomography

444

(1)

Electrical resistance tomography (ERT)

445

(7)

References

448

(4)

Appendix A Analytical continuation of potential fields

452

(3)

Appendix B Gravity and magnetic attraction of finite vertical or horizontal cylinder

455

(3)

Appendix C Magnetic anomaly of a right rectangular prism with an arbitrary direction of magnetization vector

458

(4)

Appendix D Fourier series, transforms, andconvolution

462

(4)

Appendix E Poynting vector resistivity and the Bostick inversion

466

(2)

Index

468

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Environmental and Engineering Geophysics

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Table of Contents

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