Skin Barrier

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ISBN: 9780824758158 | 0824758153
Cover: Hardcover
Copyright: 9/22/2005

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Collecting pioneering studies from acknowledged leaders in the field of skin biology, this reference highlights the latest advances in our understanding of the structure, function, and physiology of the skin barrier--analyzing research on the regulation of skin barrier function for improved skin care and skin therapeutics.

Preface

iii

Contributors

PART I. INTRODUCTION

Stratum Corneum Barrier Function: Definitions and Broad Concepts

(4)

Peter M. Elias

Kenneth R. Feingold

Why a Barrier and What Do We Mean by ``Barrier Function''?

(1)

How Are the Various Barrier Functions Mediated?

(1)

Evolving Concepts of the SC Barrier

(3)

Defensive Functions of the Stratum Corneum: Integrative Aspects

(10)

Peter M. Elias

Protective Functions Are Linked

(3)

Multiple Defensive Functions Can Be Altered by a Single Stressor

(3)

Perturbations of One Function Can Alter Other Defensive Functions

(1)

References

(3)

A Brief History of How the Dead Stratum Corneum Became Alive

(10)

Albert M. Kligman

Coda

(1)

References

(2)

The Epidermal Permeability Barrier: From Saran® Wrap to Biosensor

(8)

Peter M. Elias

Introduction

(5)

References

(3)

PART II. STRUCTURE OF THE STRATUM CORNEUM

Biochemistry of Human Stratum Corneum Lipids

(10)

Philip W. Wertz

Composition of Human Stratum Corneum Lipids

(4)

Biosynthetic Pathways

(3)

References

(3)

Stratum Corneum Ceramides: Function, Origins, and Therapeutic Applications

(22)

Yoshikazu Uchida

Sumiko Hamanaka

Introduction

(1)

What Is a Ceramide?

(1)

Why Are Stratum Corneum Ceramides Unique?

(3)

Generation of Stratum Corneum Ceramides

(5)

Therapeutic Applications

(5)

Summary

(1)

References

(7)

Structure of the Skin Barrier

(32)

Joke A. Bouwstra

Gonneke S. K. Pilgram

Maria Ponec

Introduction

(1)

Stratum Corneum Lipid Composition and Organization in Normal Skin

(12)

Barrier Function in Human Skin Equivalents

(3)

Relation Between Lipid Composition and Organization

(4)

A Unique Molecular Arrangement in the Long Periodicity Phase

(3)

Extrapolation of In Vitro Findings to the Lipid Composition and Organization in Diseased and in Xerotic Skin

(1)

Conclusions

(1)

References

(8)

Cornified Envelope and Corneocyte-Lipid Envelope

(14)

Peter J. Koch

Dennis R. Roop

Zhijian Zhou

Introduction

(1)

The Life-Cycle of Keratinocytes and the Histo-Architecture of the Epidermis

(2)

Formation of the CE and the CLE

100

(5)

Conclusions and Future Directions

105

(1)

References

106

(5)

Profilaggrin and the Fused S100 Family of Calcium-Binding Proteins

111

(30)

Richard B. Presland

Joseph A. Rothnagel

Owen T. Lawrence

Introduction

111

(3)

Profilaggrin / Filaggrin

114

(11)

Filaggrin-2: A Filaggrin-Related Protein

125

(2)

Hornerin

127

(1)

Trichohyalin

127

(1)

Repetin

128

(1)

C1ORF10 (Cornulin)

129

(1)

Summary and Concluding Remarks

130

(2)

References

132

(9)

The Role of Keratins in Epithelial Homeostasis

141

(30)

Thomas M. Magin

Julia Reichelt

Jian Chen

Introduction

141

(1)

Keratin Complexity, Nomenclature, and Genome Organization

141

(1)

Nomenclature of Keratins

142

(1)

The Mammalian Keratin Type I Clusters

142

(3)

The Mammalian Keratin Type II Clusters

145

(1)

Domain Structure, Assembly, and Protein Modifications

146

(2)

Gene Regulation and Expression

148

(3)

Keratinopathies

151

(1)

Keratins and Signaling

152

(1)

Keratin Knockout Mice and Other Functional Studies

153

(6)

Conclusions and Perspectives

159

(1)

References

160

(11)

Corneodesmosomes: Pivotal Actors in the Stratum Corneum Cohesion and Desquamation

171

(20)

Marek Haftek

Michel Simon

Guy Serre

Structural Aspects

171

(5)

Biochemical Analysis

176

(5)

Functional Correlates

181

(4)

References

185

(6)

Epidermal Barrier Function: Role of Tight Junctions

191

(20)

Johanna M. Brandner

Ehrhardt Proksch

Introduction

191

(1)

Tight Junctions (TJ) in Simple Epithelia

192

(4)

Tight Junctions in the Skin

196

(4)

Barrier Function of TJ in the Skin

200

(2)

Future Aspects

202

(1)

References

202

(9)

What Makes a Good Barrier? Adaptive Features of Vertebrate Integument

211

(12)

Gopinathan K. Menon

Introduction

211

(2)

Impact Resistance of the Integument

213

(1)

Permeability Barrier

214

(1)

Facultative Waterproofing

215

(4)

Why Do Lessons from Comparative Biology Matter to the Barrier Researchers?

219

(1)

References

220

(3)

PART III. DYNAMIC PROPERTIES OF THE STRATUM CORNEUM

SC pH: Measurement, Origins, and Functions

223

(8)

Theodora M. Mauro

Introduction

223

(1)

SC pH: Measurement

223

(1)

SC pH: Origin

224

(1)

SC pH: Functions Impacted

225

(2)

Conclusion

227

(1)

References

227

(4)

Stratum Corneum Lipid Processing: The Final Steps in Barrier Formation

231

(30)

Walter M. Holleran

Yutaka Takagi

Introduction

231

(1)

Lamellar Membrane Structures in Mammalian Stratum Corneum

231

(2)

Glucosylceramides as a Major Source of Stratum Corneum Ceramides

233

(3)

Glucosylceramide Processing Is Required for Epidermal Barrier Function

236

(1)

Regulation of GlcCer'ase Activity in the Epidermis and SC

237

(2)

Lipid Processing of the Corneocyte Lipid Envelope

239

(1)

Sphingomyelinase Activity in the Generation of SC Barrier Lipids

240

(2)

Processing of Glycerophospholipids by Secretory Phospholipases

242

(1)

Ceramidases in Epidermal Lipid Processing and Function

243

(1)

Processing of Cholesterol Sulfate by Steroid Sulfatase

244

(1)

Lipid Processing Alterations in Atopic Dermatitis

245

(2)

Altered Lipid Processing in Psoriasis

247

(1)

Altered Lipid Processing with Aging

248

(1)

Summary

249

(1)

References

249

(12)

PART IV. REGULATION OF STRATUM CORNEUM FORMATION

The Epidermal Lamellar Body as a Multifunctional Secretory Organelle

261

(12)

Peter M. Elias

Kenneth R. Feingold

Manige Fartasch

Lamellar Bodies---Species and Tissue Distribution as an Indicator of Permeability Barrier Function

261

(4)

Regulation of Lamellar Body Secretion

265

(4)

Pathophysiology of Lamellar Body Secretion

269

(1)

References

269

(4)

Skin Structural Development

273

(16)

Mathew J. Hardman

Carolyn Byrne

Introduction

273

(1)

Development of Human Skin

273

(2)

Periderm---the Embryonic Skin Layer of Unknown Function

275

(8)

Conclusion

283

(1)

References

284

(5)

Epidermal Calcium Gradient and the Permeability Barrier

289

(16)

Gopinathan K. Menon

Seung Hun Lee

Introduction

289

(1)

The Epidermal Calcium Gradient

290

(2)

Altered Calcium Gradient in Skin Dysfunctions

292

(3)

Calcium Gradient and Permeability Barrier: Experimental Studies

295

(2)

Regulation of the Calcium Gradient

297

(3)

Implications of Epidermal Calcium Gradient for Skin Biologists

300

(1)

References

301

(4)

The Role of the Primary Cytokines, TNF, IL-1, and IL-6, in Permeability Barrier Homeostasis

305

(14)

Biao Lu

Peter M. Elias

Kenneth R. Feingold

Introduction

305

(1)

Interleukin-1 Family

305

(3)

TNF Family

308

(1)

Interleukin-6 Family

309

(1)

Effect of Barrier Disruption on Cytokine Homeostasis in the Epidermis

310

(2)

Role in Barrier Repair

312

(1)

Pathophysiologic Consequences

313

(1)

Summary

313

(1)

References

314

(5)

Nuclear Hormone Receptors: Epidermal Liposensors

319

(18)

Matthias Schmuth

Kenneth R. Feingold

The Nuclear Hormone Receptor Super Family

319

(1)

Mechanism of Action

319

(3)

Ligands

322

(1)

Peroxisome Proliferator--Activated Receptors (PPAR)

322

(1)

PPAR-Alpha

322

(3)

PPAR-Delta

325

(2)

PPAR-Gamma

327

(2)

Liver X Receptor (LXR)

329

(3)

Crosstalk Between Lipids and Proteins in the Epidermis

332

(1)

References

333

(4)

PART V. FUNCTIONS OF THE STRATUM CORNEUM

Permeability Barrier Homeostasis

337

(26)

Peter M. Elias

Kenneth R. Feingold

Structural and Biochemical Basis for the Stratum Corneum Barrier

337

(9)

Metabolic Regulation of Permeability Barrier Homeostasis

346

(6)

Extracellular Signals of Barrier Homeostasis

352

(2)

References

354

(9)

Cutaneous Barriers in Defense Against Microbial Invasion

363

(16)

Anna Di Nardo

Richard L. Gallo

Introduction

363

(1)

Skin Surface pH

364

(1)

The Skin Lipid Barrier

365

(1)

Antimicrobial Peptides

365

(4)

Other Proteins and Peptides with Antimicrobial Peptide Functions

369

(2)

Enzymes

371

(1)

Barrier Implications

372

(1)

Concluding Remarks

373

(1)

References

373

(6)

The Epidermal Antioxidant Barrier

379

(20)

Jens J. Thiele

Introduction

379

(1)

Generation of Reactive Oxygen Species and Oxidative Stress

379

(1)

Physiological Barrier Antioxidants

380

(1)

Vitamin E

381

(1)

Vitamin C, Glutathione, and Uric Acid

382

(1)

Enzymatic Antioxidants in the Stratum Corneum

383

(1)

Impact of Environmental Factors on Barrier Antioxidants

384

(3)

Physiological Mechanisms of Barrier Antioxidant Repletion

387

(2)

Clinical Implications

389

(4)

References

393

(6)

Sources and Role of Stratum Corneum Hydration

399

(28)

A. V. Rawlings

Introduction

399

(2)

Stratum Corneum Hydration and Water Content

401

(4)

Stratum Corneum Water Retention Capacity

405

(4)

Stratum Corneum Lipid and NMF Gradients

409

(1)

The Effect of the Seasons and Atmospheric Conditions on the Stratum Corneum

410

(4)

The Role of Water in the Stratum Corneum

414

(6)

Conclusions

420

(2)

References

422

(5)

Vitamin D and the Epidermis

427

(20)

Daniel D. Bikle

Introduction

427

(1)

Vitamin D Production and Metabolism in the Epidermis

427

(4)

Role of Vitamin D3 in Epidermal Differentiation

431

(6)

References

437

(10)

PART VI. ABNORMALITIES IN THE STRATUM CORNEUM

Diseases That Affect Barrier Function

447

(22)

Hachiro Tagami

Katsuko Kikuchi

Introduction

447

(1)

In Vivo Functional Assessment of the SC Barrier

448

(1)

Measurements of Skin Surface Hydration State

449

(1)

Assessment of Skin Barrier Function in Dermatoses

450

(10)

SC Changes That Occur Later in Life in Those with Normal Healthy Skin

460

(2)

Concluding Remarks

462

(1)

References

463

(6)

Pathogenesis of the Barrier Abnormalities in Disorders of Cornification

469

(42)

Matthias Schmuth

Peter M. Elias

Mary L. Williams

Introduction

469

(8)

Abnormalities in Extracellular Lipid Lamellar Structures and Other Lipid Metabolic Defects

477

(9)

Acquired Ichthyoses Due to Unknown

Molecular Defects

486

(1)

Abnormalities of Corneocytes

486

(9)

Abnormalities in Intercellular Communication (Gap Junctions)

495

(2)

Abnormalities in Corneocyte Cohesion Due to Abnormal Proteolysis of Desmosomes

497

(1)

References

498

(13)

Pathogenesis of Desquamation and Permeability Barrier Abnormalities in RXLI

511

(8)

Peter M. Elias

Debra Crumrine

Ulrich Rassner

Gopinathan K. Menon

Kenneth R. Feingold

Mary L. Williams

The Molecular and Biochemical Basis for Recessive X-Linked Ichthyosis

511

(1)

Steroid Sulfatase and Cholesterol Sulfate in Normal Epidermal Physiology

512

(1)

Regulation of Differentiation by Cholesterol Sulfate

513

(1)

Mechanisms Proposed to Perturb Permeability Barrier Homeostasis in RXLI

514

(1)

Mechanisms Proposed as Causes of Abnormal Desquamation in RXLI

514

(1)

References

515

(4)

Prevention and Repair of Barrier Disruption in Occupational Dermatology

519

(16)

Nanna Y. Schurer

Hans J. Schwanitz

Introduction

519

(2)

Primary Individual Prevention

521

(6)

Secondary Individual Prevention

527

(2)

Tertiary Individual Prevention

529

(1)

References

530

(5)

The Aged Epidermal Permeability Barrier: Basis for Functional Abnormalities

535

(18)

Chantal O. Barland

Peter M. Elias

Ruby Ghadially

Structure, Function, Lipid Composition, and Metabolism of the Barrier

535

(2)

Regulation of the Normal Epidermal Barrier

537

(1)

The Aged Epidermal Barrier

538

(7)

Barrier Repair Strategies for Aged Epidermis

545

(1)

Clinical Implications

546

(1)

References

547

(6)

Psychological Stress and the Barrier: The Psychosensory Interface

553

(16)

Mitsuhiro Denda

Introduction

553

(1)

Animal Model

554

(5)

Human Experiments

559

(3)

Effect of Odorant Inhalation on Barrier Homeostasis

562

(1)

Epidermis and Endocrine System

562

(1)

Epidermis and Neurotransmitters

563

(1)

Conclusion

564

(1)

References

565

(4)

The Stratum Corneum of the Epidermis in Atopic Dermatitis

569

(22)

Jens-Michael Jensen

Ehrhardt Proksch

Peter M. Elias

Normal Stratum Corneum: Composition and Function

569

(1)

Atopic Dermatitis: Genetics

570

(1)

Atopic Dermatitis: Function

571

(1)

Basis for Barrier Abnormalities

572

(6)

Clinical Manifestations Resulting from Impaired Barrier Function

578

(2)

Therapeutic Implications

580

(1)

References

581

(10)

PART VII. IMPROVING BARRIER FUNCTION

Epilogue: Fixing the Barrier---Theory and Rational Deployment

591

(10)

Peter M. Elias

Introduction

591

(1)

Dynamics of Barrier Recovery

591

(1)

Clinical Applications of the Cutaneous Stress Test

592

(1)

Individual Lipid Requirements for the Barrier

593

(1)

The Three Key SC Lipids Are Required in an Equimolar Distribution

593

(1)

Non-Physiologic Lipids---Mechanism of Action

593

(2)

Potential of Barrier Repair Therapy

595

(2)

References

597

(4)

Index

601

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Skin Barrier

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