Smart Grids for Smart Cities, Volume 1

Written and edited by a team of experts in the field, this first volume in a two-volume set focuses on an interdisciplinary perspective on the financial, environmental, and other benefits of smart grid technologies and solutions for smart cities.

What makes a regular electric grid a “smart” grid? It comes down to digital technologies that enable two-way communication between a utility and its customers, as opposed to the traditional electric grid, where power flows in one direction. Based on statistics and available research, smart grids globally attract the largest investment venues in smart cities. Smart grids and city buildings that are connected in smart cities contribute to significant financial savings and improve the economy. The smart grid has many components, including controls, computers, automation, and new technologies and equipment working together. These technologies cooperate with the electrical grid to respond digitally to our quickly changing electric demand.

The investment in smart grid technology also has certain challenges. The interconnected feature of smart grids is valuable, but it tremendously increases their susceptibility to threats. It is crucial to secure smart grids wherein many technologies are employed to increase real-time situational awareness and the ability to support renewables, as well as system automation to increase the reliability, efficiency, and safety of the electric grid.

This exciting new volume covers all of these technologies, including the basic concepts and the problems and solutions involved with the practical applications in the real world. Whether for the veteran engineer or scientist, the student, or a manager or other technician working in the field, this volume is a must-have for any library.

O.V. Gnana Swathika, PhD, earned her PhD in electrical engineering from VIT University, Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India. She completed her postdoc at the University of Moratuwa, Sri Lanka in 2019. Her current research interests include microgrid protection, power system optimization, embedded systems, and photovoltaic systems.

K. Karthikeyan is an electrical and electronics engineering graduate with a master’s in personnel management from the University of Madras. He has two decades of experience in electrical design.  He is Chief Engineering Manager in Electrical Designs for Larsen & Toubro Construction.

Sanjeevikumar Padmanaban, PhD, is a professor in the Department of Electrical Engineering, IT and Cybernetic, University of South-Eastern Norway, Porsgrunn, Norway. He received his PhD in electrical engineering from the University of Bologna, Italy.  He has almost ten years of teaching, research and industrial experience and is an associate editor on a number of international scientific refereed journals. He has published more than 750 research papers and has won numerous awards for his research and teaching.

Preface xvii

1 Carbon-Free Fuel and the Social Gap: The Analysis 1
Saravanan Chinnusamy, Milind Shrinivas Dangate and Nasrin I. Shaikh

1.1 Introduction 2

1.2 Objectives 3

1.3 Study Areas 3

1.3.1 Community A 4

1.3.2 Community B 4

1.3.3 community c 5

1.3.4 Community d 5

1.4 Data Collection 6

1.5 Data Analysis 9

1.6 Conclusion 10

References 13

2 Opportunities of Translating Mobile Base Transceiver Station (BTS) for EV Charging Through Energy Management Systems in DC Microgrid 15
A. Matheswaran, P. Prem, C. Ganesh Babu and K. Lakshmi

2.1 Introduction 16

2.1.1 Telecom Sector in India 16

2.1.2 Overview of Base Transceiver Station (BTS) 17

2.1.3 Electric Vehicle in India 19

2.1.4 Evolution of EV Charging Station 21

2.2 Translating Mobile Base Transceiver Station (BTS) for EV Charging 21

2.2.1 Mobile Base Transceiver Station (BTS) for EV Charging – A Substitute or Complementary Solution? 21

2.2.2 Proposed Methodology 23

2.2.3 System Description 24

2.2.3.1 Solar PV Array 24

2.2.3.2 DC-DC Boost Converter 25

2.2.3.3 Rectifier 25

2.2.3.4 Battery Backup System 26

2.2.3.5 Charge Controller 27

2.2.3.6 Bidirectional Converter 28

2.3 Implementation of Energy Management System in Base Transceiver Station (BTS) 29

2.3.1 Introduction 29

2.3.2 Control Strategies 30

2.3.2.1 MPPT Control 31

2.3.2.2 Charge Controller Control 31

2.3.2.3 Bidirectional Converter Control 32

2.3.3 Power Supervisory and Control Algorithm (PSCA) 33

2.3.3.1 Grid Available Mode 33

2.3.3.2 Grid Fault Mode 33

2.3.4 Results and Discussions 35

2.3.4.1 Grid Available Mode 35

2.3.4.2 Grid Failure Mode 35

2.4 Conclusion 35

References 38

3 A Review on Advanced Control Techniques for Multi-Input Power Converters for Various Applications 41
Kodada Durga Priyanka and Abitha Memala Wilson Duraisamy

3.1 Introduction 42

3.2 Multi-Input Magnetically Connected Power Converters 46

3.2.1 Dual-Source Power DC to DC Converter with Buck-Boost Arrangement 46

3.2.2 Bidirectional Multi-Input Arrangement 47

3.2.3 Full-Bridge Boost DC-DC Converter Formation 48

3.2.4 Multi-Input Power Converter with Half-Bridge and Full Bridge Configuration 49

3.3 Electrically Coupled Multi-Input Power DC-DC Converters 50

3.3.1 Combination of Electrically Linked Multi-Input DC/DC Power Converter 50

3.3.2 Multi-Input Power Converters in Series or Parallel Connection 51

3.3.3 Multi-Input DC/DC Fundamental Power Converters 52

3.3.4 Multiple-Input Boost Converter for RES 53

3.3.5 Multi-Input Buck-Boost/Buck/Boost-Boost Based Converter 54

3.3.6 Multi-Input Buck-Boost/Buck/Boost-Boost Based Converter 55

3.3.7 Multi-Input DC/DC Converter Using ZVS (Zero Voltage Switching) 57

3.3.8 Multi-Input DC-DC Converter Based Three Switches Leg 57

3.3.9 Multi-Input Converter Constructed on Switched Inductor/Switched Capacitor/Diode Capacitor 58

3.3.10 High/Modular VTR Multi-Input Converters 59

3.3.11 Multi/Input and Multi/Output (MIMO) Power Converter 60

3.4 Electro Magnetically Coupled Multi-Input Power DC/DC Converters 61

3.4.1 Direct Charge Multi-Input DC/DC Power Converter 61

3.4.2 Boost-Integrated Full-Bridge DC-DC Power Converter 62

3.4.3 Isolated Dual-Port Power Converter for Immediate Power Management 63

3.4.4 Dual Port Converter with Non-Isolated and Isolated Ports 63

3.4.5 Multi-Port ZVS And ZCS DC-DC Converter 64

3.4.6 Combined DC-Link and Magnetically Coupled DC/DC Power Converter 65

3.4.7 Three-Level Dual-Input DC-DC Converter 65

3.4.8 Half-Bridge Tri-Modal DC-DC Converter 66

3.4.9 Bidirectional Converter with Various Collective Battery Storage Input Sources 75

3.5 Different Control Methods Used in Multi-Input DC-DC Power Converters 75

3.5.1 Proportional Integral Derivation Controller (PID) 76

3.5.2 Model Predictive Control Method (MPC) 77

3.5.3 State Space Modelling (SSM) 78

3.5.4 Fuzzy Logic Control (FLC) 79

3.5.5 Sliding Mode Control (SMC) 80

3.6 Comparison and Future Scope of Work 82

3.6.1 Comparison and Discussion 82

3.7 Conclusion 85

References 86

4 Case Study: Optimized LT Cable Sizing for an IT Campus 101
O.V. Gnana Swathika, K. Karthikeyan, Umashankar Subramaniam and K.T.M.U. Hemapala

Abbreviations 102

4.1 Introduction 102

4.2 Methodology 103

4.2.1 Algorithm for Cable Sizing 103

4.3 Results and Discussion 103

4.3.1 Feeder Schedule 104

4.3.2 Design Consideration for LT Power Cable 104

4.3.3 Cable Sizing & Voltage Drop Calculation 107

4.4 Conclusion 114

References 114

5 Advanced Control Architecture for Interlinking Converter in Autonomous AC, DC and Hybrid AC/DC Micro Grids 115
M. Padma Lalitha, S. Suresh and A. Viswa Pavani

5.1 Introduction 116

5.2 Prototype Model of IC 117

5.3 Implemented Photo Voltaic System 118

5.4 Highly Reliable and Efficient (HRE) Configurations 120

5.5 MATLAB Simulink Results 122

5.6 Conclusion 127

References 127

6 Optimal Power Flow Analysis in Distributed Grid Connected Photovoltaic Systems 131
Neenu Thomas, T.N.P. Nambiar and Jayabarathi R.

6.1 Introduction 131

6.2 System Development and Design Parameters 132

6.3 Proposed Algorithm 138

6.4 Results and Discussion 138

6.5 Conclusion 141

References 141

7 Reliability Assessment for Solar and Wind Renewable Energy in Generation System Planning 143
S. Vinoth John Prakash and P.K. Dhal

7.1 Introduction 144

7.2 Generation & Load Model 146

7.2.1 Generation Model-RBTS 146

7.2.2 Wind Power Generation Model 147

7.2.2.1 Wind Speed and Wind Turbine Output Model 147

7.2.3 Solar Power Generation Model 150

7.2.3.1 Solar Radiation and Solar Power Output Model 150

7.2.4 Load Model 152

7.3 Results and Analysis 152

7.3.1 Reliability Indices Evaluation for Different Scenario 153

7.4 Conclusion 155

References 156

8 Implementation of Savonius Blad Wind Tree Structure by Super Lift Luo Converter for Smart Grid Applications and Benefits to Smart City 159
Jency Joseph J., Anitha Mary X., Josh F. T., Vinoth Kumar K. and Vinodha K.

8.1 Introduction 160

8.2 Savonius Wind Turbine – Performance Design 160

8.3 Design Modules 163

8.4 Results and Discussion 167

8.5 Positive Output Super Lift Luo Converter 170

8.6 Conclusion 171

References 172

9 Analysis: An Incorporation of PV and Battery for DC Scattered System 175
M. Karuppiah, P. Dineshkumar, A. Arunbalaj and S. Krishnakumar

9.1 Introduction 176

9.2 Block Diagram of Proposed System 179

9.2.1 Determine the Load Profile 180

9.2.2 Duration of Autonomy and Recharge 180

9.2.3 Select the Battery Rating 181

9.2.4 Sizing the PV Array 182

9.2.5 Analysis of Boost Converter 184

9.2.5.1 To Select a Proper Inductor Value 187

9.2.5.2 To Select a Proper Capacitor Value 187

9.3 Proposed System Simulations 188

9.4 Conclusion 192

References 193

10 Dead Time Compensation Scheme Using Space Vector PWM for 3Ø Inverter 195
Sreeramula Reddy, Ravindra Prasad, Harinath Reddy and Suresh Srinivasan

10.1 Introduction 195

10.2 Concept of Space Vector PWM 197

10.3 Proteus Simulation 200

10.4 Hardware Setup 201

10.4.1 Total Harmonic Distortion 206

10.4.2 Hardware Configuration 209

10.5 Conclusion 210

References 211

11 Transformer-Less Grid Connected PV System Using TSRPWM Strategy with Single Phase 7 Level Multi-Level Inverter 213
S. Sruthi, K. Karthikumar, D. Narmitha, P. Chandra Sekhar and K. Karthi

11.1 Introduction 214

11.2 Proposed System 215

11.3 DC-DC Influence Converter 216

11.4 Controlling of 7-Level Inverter 218

11.5 Controlling for Boost Converter and Inverter 221

11.6 MATLAB Simulation Results 221

11.7 Conclusion 224

References 225

12 An Enhanced Multi-Level Inverter Topology for HEV Applications 227
Premkumar E. and Kanimozhi G.

12.1 Introduction 227

12.2 E-MLI Topology 228

12.2.1 Switching Operation of the E-MLI Topology 229

12.2.2 Diode-Clamped Multi-Level Inverter (DC-MLI) 232

12.3 PWM for the E-MLI Topology 233

12.3.1 SPWM Based Switching for the E-MLI Topology 234

12.3.2 Phase Opposition Disposition (POD) Scheme for DC-MLI 234

12.4 Simulation Results & Discussions 236

12.5 Conclusion 249

References 249

13 Improved Sheep Flock Heredity Algorithm-Based Optimal Pricing of RP 253
P. Booma Devi, Booma Jayapalan and A.P. Jagadeesan

13.1 Introduction 254

13.2 RP Flow Tracing 257

13.2.1 Intent Function 257

13.2.1.1 System’s Price Loss After RP Compensation 257

13.2.1.2 SVC Support Price for RP 258

13.2.1.3 Diesel Generator RP Production Price 258

13.2.1.4 Minimization Function 258

13.3 Existing Methodologies 259

13.3.1 Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO) 259

13.3.1.1 PSO Parameter Settings 259

13.3.2 Hybrid Particle Swarm Optimization (HPSO) 260

13.3.2.1 Flowchart for HPSO 260

13.4 Proposed Methodology 261

13.4.1 Improved Sheep Flock Heredity Algorithm 261

13.4.2 ISFHA Algorithm 263

13.5 Case Study 263

13.5.1 Realistic Seventy-Five Bus Indian System Wind Farm 263

13.6 Conclusion 266

References 267

14 Dual Axis Solar Tracking with Weather Monitoring System by Using IR and LDR Sensors with Arduino UNO 269
Rajesh Babu Damala and Rajesh Kumar Patnaik

14.1 Introduction 269

14.2 Associated Hardware Components Details 270

14.2.1 Arduino Uno 270

14.2.2 L293D Motor Driver 271

14.2.3 LDR Sensor 272

14.2.4 Solar Panel 273

14.2.5 RPM 10 Motor 274

14.2.6 Jumper Wires 274

14.2.7 16×2 LCD (Liquid Crystal Display) Module with I2C 275

14.2.8 DTH11 Sensor 276

14.2.9 Rain Drop Sensor 276

14.3 Methodology 277

14.3.1 Dual Axis Solar Tracking System Working Model 277

14.3.2 Dual Axis Solar Tracking System Schematic Diagram 279

14.4 Results and Discussion 279

14.5 Conclusion 281

References 282

15 Missing Data Imputation of an Off-Grid Solar Power Model for a Small-Scale System 285
Aadyasha Patel, Aniket Biswal and O.V. Gnana Swathika

Abbreviations and Nomenclature 286

15.1 Overview 286

15.2 Literature Review 287

15.3 AI/ML for Imputation of Missing Values 288

15.3.1 Cbr 288

15.3.2 Mice 290

15.3.3 Results and Discussion 291

15.3.3.1 Data Collection 291

15.3.3.2 Error Metrics 292

15.3.3.3 Comparison Between CBR and MICE 293

15.4 Applications of MICE in Imputation 296

15.5 Summary 296

References 297

16 Power Theft in Smart Grids and Microgrids: Mini Review 299
P. Tejaswi and O.V. Gnana Swathika

16.1 Introduction 299

16.2 Smart Grids/Microgrids Security Threats and Challenges 300

16.2.1 Security Threats to Smart Grid/Microgrid by Classification of Sources 301

16.2.1.1 Smart Grid/Microgrid Threats Sources in Technical Point of View 302

16.2.2 Sources of Smart Grids/Microgrids Threats in Non-Technical Point of View 304

16.2.2.1 Security of Environment 304

16.2.2.2 Regulatory Policies of Government 304

16.3 Conclusion 304

References 304

17 Isolated SEPIC-Based DC-DC Converter for Solar Applications 309
Varun Mukesh Lal, Pranay Singh Parihar and Kanimozhi. G

17.1 Introduction 309

17.2 Converter Operation and Analysis 311

17.2.1 Mode A 311

17.2.2 Mode B 313

17.3 Design Equations 314

17.4 Simulation Results 316

17.5 Conclusion 321

References 321

18 Hybrid Converter for Stand-Alone Solar Photovoltaic System 323
R.R. Rubia Gandhi and C. Kathirvel

18.1 Introduction 324

18.2 Review on Converter Topology 324

18.3 Block Diagram 325

18.4 Existing Converter Topology 326

18.5 Proposed Tapped Boost Hybrid Converter 326

18.5.1 Novelty in the Circuit 327

18.5.2 Converter Modes of Operation 327

18.6 Derivation Part of Tapped Boost Hybrid Converter 327

18.6.1 Voltage Gain 328

18.6.2 Modulation Index 328

18.7 Design Specification of the Converter 329

18.8 Simulation Results for Both DC and AC Power Conversion 330

18.9 Hardware Results 330

18.10 TBHC Parameters for Simulation 332

18.11 Conclusion 334

References 334

19 Analysis of Three-Phase Quasi Switched Boost Inverter Based on Switched Inductor-Switched Capacitor Structure 337
P. Sriramalakshmi, Vachan Kumar, Pallav Pant and Reshab Kumar Sahoo

19.1 Introduction 337

19.1.1 Conventional Inverter (VSI) 339

19.1.2 Z-Source Inverter (ZSI) 339

19.1.3 SBI Based on SL-SC Structure 340

19.2 Working Modes of Three-Phase SL-SC Circuit 341

19.2.1 Shoot-Through State 341

19.2.2 Non-Shoot-Through State 342

19.3 Design of Three-Phase SL-SC Based Quasi Switched Boost Inverter 342

19.3.1 Steady State Analysis of SL-SC Topology 342

19.3.2 Design of Passive Elements 344

19.3.3 Design Equations 344

19.3.4 Design Specifications 344

19.4 Simulation Results and Discussions 344

19.4.1 Simulation Diagram of SBC PWM Technique 344

19.4.2 SBC PWM Technique 345

19.4.3 Switching Pulse Generated for the Power Switches 347

19.4.4 Expanded Switching Pulse 348

19.4.5 Input Current 348

19.4.6 Current in Inductor L 1 349

19.4.7 Current in Inductor L 2 349

19.4.8 Capacitor Voltage VC 2 350

19.4.9 dc Link Voltage 350

19.4.10 Output Load Voltage 351

19.4.11 Output Load Current 351

19.5 Performance Analysis 351

19.6 Conclusion 353

References 354

20 Power Quality Improvement and Performance Enhancement of Distribution System Using D-STATCOM 357
M. Sai Sandeep, N. Balaji, Muqthiar Ali and Suresh Srinivasan

20.1 Introduction 358

20.2 Distribution Static Synchronous Compensator (d-statcom) 360

20.3 Modelling of Distribution System 361

20.3.1 Single Machine System 361

20.3.2 Modeling of IEEE 14 Bus System 362

20.4 Simulation Results & Discussions 363

20.4.1 Power Flow Analysis on Single Machine System 363

20.4.2 Different Modes of Operation of D-STATCOM on Single Machine System 365

20.4.3 Step Change in Reference Value of dc Link Voltage 368

20.5 IEEE-14 Bus Systems 370

20.6 Conclusion 374

References 374

Index 377

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