- ISBN: 9781405196208 | 1405196203
- Cover: Hardcover
- Copyright: 4/30/2012
Preface | p. xi |
Acknowledgements | p. xiii |
Scientific and geological context | p. 1 |
Introduction to speleothems and systems | p. 3 |
What is all the fuss about? | p. 3 |
What types of speleothem are useful for generating climate archives? | p. 3 |
Where do speleothems occur? | p. 4 |
How do they form? | p. 5 |
How do we date them? | p. 7 |
What are the proxies for past environments and climates? | p. 9 |
How do speleothems compare with other archives? | p. 10 |
What next for speleothem science? | p. 11 |
How is this book organized? | p. 11 |
Concepts and approaches of system science | p. 13 |
Box 1.1 Box models and feedback | p. 14 |
The speleothem factory within the karst system | p. 18 |
Long-term change | p. 20 |
Annual-scale behaviour | p. 21 |
Decadal- to multi-millennial-scale changes | p. 24 |
Carbonate and karst cave geology | p. 28 |
Carbonates in the Earth system over geological time | p. 28 |
Lithologies of carbonate host rocks | p. 34 |
Carbonate facies | p. 34 |
The architecture of carbonate host rocks: sequence stratigraphy | p. 40 |
Impure and geologically complex host rocks | p. 42 |
Carbonate porosity | p. 43 |
Carbonate diagenesis and eogenetic karst | p. 47 |
Early diagenesis in marine waters and brines | p. 47 |
Vadose diagenetic processes | p. 47 |
Meteoric phreatic diagenesis | p. 50 |
Eogenetic karst development | p. 51 |
Burial diagenesis | p. 54 |
Speleogenesis in mesogenetic and telogenetic karst (with contributions from John Gunn and David J Lowe) | p. 55 |
Chronologies of cave development | p. 56 |
Geometry of cave passages and systems | p. 57 |
Localization of caves: the inception horizon hypothesis | p. 59 |
Mesogenetic caves | p. 61 |
Modelling the development of conduits and networks | p. 62 |
Cave infilling | p. 64 |
Mechanisms of cave infill and their relative power | p. 64 |
Dating the infills | p. 66 |
Physical sedimentology | p. 66 |
Archaeological issues | p. 69 |
The long-term prognosis | p. 69 |
Conclusion | p. 71 |
Surface environments: climate, soil and vegetation | p. 73 |
The modern climate system | p. 73 |
The global energy budget | p. 73 |
Global patterns of temperature, rainfall and evapotranspiration | p. 75 |
The general circulation of the atmosphere | p. 76 |
Ocean circulation and land-ocean interactions | p. 77 |
Box 3.1 Climate indices | p. 78 |
Box 3.2 Back trajectory analysis | p. 80 |
Climate classifications and 'hotspots' | p. 81 |
Water isotopes in the atmosphere | p. 84 |
Variation in stable isotopes owing to evaporation and Rayleigh condensation | p. 85 |
Other factors responsible for variations in isotopic composition | p. 88 |
Isotopic variations in space within the annual cycle | p. 89 |
Inter-annual isotopic variations | p. 93 |
Soils of karst regions | p. 94 |
Processes of soil formation | p. 94 |
Soil development through time | p. 101 |
Concluding views on karst soils | p. 102 |
Vegetation of karst regions | p. 102 |
Synthesis: inputs to the incubator | p. 104 |
Transfer processes in karst | p. 105 |
The speleothem incubator | p. 107 |
Introduction to speleophysiology | p. 107 |
Physical parameters and fluid behaviour | p. 109 |
Measurement of parameters | p. 109 |
Static parameters in air | p. 109 |
Dynamic fluid behaviour: laminar versus turbulent flow | p. 111 |
Dynamic fluid behaviour: advective versus diffusive transport | p. 112 |
Water movement | p. 114 |
Air circulation | p. 122 |
Physical causes | p. 122 |
Cave breathing | p. 122 |
Wind-induced flow | p. 125 |
Chimney circulation | p. 125 |
Convection | p. 126 |
Water-induced flow | p. 127 |
Radon studies as indicators of rates of air-exchange | p. 127 |
Carbon dioxide and its variability | p. 129 |
Generalizing seasonality and its implications for speleothems | p. 134 |
Heat flux (authored by David Domínguez-Villar) | p. 137 |
Sources and mechanisms of heat transfer into caves | p. 137 |
Geothermal heat flux | p. 137 |
Surface heat flux | p. 138 |
Heat transferred by the atmosphere | p. 138 |
Heat transferred from water | p. 140 |
Heat transferred from the rock | p. 141 |
Thermal equilibrium in caves | p. 143 |
Synthesis: cave climatologies | p. 145 |
Inorganic water chemistry | p. 148 |
Sampling protocols for water chemistry | p. 148 |
Box 5.1 Aqueous chemistry definitions | p. 149 |
The carbonate system | p. 152 |
Weathering, trace elements and isotopes | p. 156 |
Overview of element sources and sinks | p. 156 |
Calcite dissolution as an exemplar of weathering processes | p. 158 |
Mineral weathering | p. 163 |
Isotope studies | p. 167 |
Colloidally bound elements | p. 170 |
Box 5.2 Ion behaviour and complexation | p. 171 |
Carbon isotopes | p. 173 |
Box 5.3 | p. 174 |
Evolution of cave water chemistry: modelling sources and environmental signals | p. 180 |
Forward modelling | p. 180 |
Backward modelling | p. 182 |
Biogeochemistry of karstic environments | p. 187 |
Introduction | p. 187 |
Organic macromolecules | p. 188 |
Fluorescent organic matter | p. 188 |
Box 6.1 Organic macromolecules in speleothems | p. 190 |
Lipid and lignin macromolecules | p. 193 |
Box 6.2 Colloids and gels: interactions between organic matter and inorganic stalagmite proxies (lead author Adam Hartland) | p. 194 |
Ribosomal DNA | p. 196 |
Pollen and spores | p. 198 |
Pollen | p. 198 |
Spores | p. 198 |
Cave faunal remains | p. 199 |
Synthesis and research gaps | p. 200 |
Box 6.3 Vegetation and soil cycling of inorganic proxies: evidence from sulphur isotopes | p. 201 |
Speleothem properties | p. 205 |
The architecture of speleothems | p. 207 |
Introduction | p. 207 |
Theoretical models of stalagmite growth and of stalagmite and stalactite shapes | p. 207 |
Theories of speleothem growth rate | p. 207 |
Models of stalagmite shapes | p. 211 |
Models of stalactite shapes | p. 213 |
Geometrical classification of speleothems | p. 213 |
Soda-straw stalactites | p. 214 |
Non-'soda-straw' stalactites | p. 216 |
'Minimum-diameter' stalagmites | p. 217 |
Non-'minimum-diameter' stalagmites | p. 217 |
Flowstones | p. 218 |
Other speleothem forms | p. 218 |
Box 7.1 Speleoseismicity in the Mechara karst, southeastern Ethiopia (authored by Asfawossen Asrat) | p. 220 |
Mineralogy and petrology | p. 223 |
Mineralogy: aragonite versus calcite | p. 223 |
Crystal fabrics | p. 224 |
Nucleation | p. 224 |
Crystal morphology | p. 226 |
Impingement growth | p. 229 |
Stalagmite fabrics | p. 231 |
Laminae | p. 238 |
Growth phases and hiatuses | p. 240 |
Synthesis | p. 241 |
Geochemistry of speleothems | p. 245 |
Analysis and the sources of uncertainty | p. 245 |
What's the research question? | p. 245 |
Analytical specificity | p. 246 |
The geometry of the growth surface and spatial precision | p. 246 |
Analytical precision and accuracy | p. 248 |
The growth interface | p. 249 |
Nanostructure of the growth surface | p. 250 |
Organic molecules | p. 251 |
Biological activity at the growth interface | p. 253 |
Trace element partitioning | p. 255 |
Thermodynamic and mixed empirical-thermodynamic approaches | p. 255 |
Limitations of the partition coefficient concept | p. 258 |
Oxygen and carbon isotope fractionation | p. 263 |
Fluid inclusions | p. 263 |
Can an equilibrium composition be defined? | p. 265 |
Kinetic effects during CaC03 precipitation | p. 270 |
pH and growth rate effects | p. 270 |
The Hendy test | p. 271 |
Modelling fractionation along speleothem surfaces | p. 272 |
Clumped isotope geothermometry (¿47 value) | p. 275 |
Evolution of dripwater and speleothem chemistry along water flowlines | p. 277 |
Process models of variability over time | p. 281 |
Stadial- to glacial-length episodes | p. 282 |
Sub-millennial variation | p. 282 |
Annual cycles | p. 285 |
Dating of speleothems | p. 290 |
Introduction | p. 290 |
Dating techniques | p. 291 |
Interval dating | p. 291 |
14C | p. 294 |
U-Th | p. 295 |
U-Pb | p. 298 |
Other techniques | p. 299 |
Age-distance models | p. 300 |
Conclusions | p. 301 |
Palaeoenvironments | p. 303 |
The instrumental era: calibration and validation of proxy-environment relationships | p. 305 |
Available instrumental and derived series | p. 306 |
Directly measured data | p. 306 |
Interpolated data products | p. 309 |
Reanalysis data | p. 309 |
Climate indices | p. 310 |
Methodologies | p. 311 |
Overview of methodologies used in other fields | p. 311 |
Linear-regression-based techniques | p. 311 |
Compositing records | p. 313 |
Forward modelling | p. 313 |
Pseudoproxies | p. 313 |
Appropriate methodologies for speleothem calibration | p. 313 |
Linear-regression-based approaches | p. 314 |
Compositing | p. 315 |
Forward modelling | p. 315 |
Pseudoproxies | p. 316 |
Case studies of calibrated speleothem proxies | p. 316 |
Annual lamina thickness | p. 316 |
¿18O | p. 319 |
Other proxies | p. 321 |
Questions raised and future directions | p. 323 |
The Holocene epoch: testing the climate and environmental proxies | p. 324 |
A brief overview of the Holocene | p. 325 |
The Early Holocene | p. 326 |
The Mid-Holocene | p. 327 |
Late Holocene | p. 327 |
The past millennium | p. 327 |
Instrumentally calibrated speleothem climate reconstructions | p. 328 |
Multi-proxy reconstructions and model-proxy comparisons | p. 331 |
Holocene environmental changes: speleothem responses | p. 334 |
The period of remnant ice sheets in the Early Holocene | p. 334 |
The last Mediterranean sapropel | p. 334 |
The '8.2ka event' | p. 335 |
Orbital forcing over the Mid- to Late Holocene | p. 337 |
Evidence for multi-decadal and multi-centennial climate variability | p. 341 |
Box 11.1 | p. 343 |
Speleothem evidence of Holocene soil and vegetation change | p. 349 |
Questions raised and future directions | p. 351 |
The Pleistocene and beyond | p. 353 |
Pleistocene proxy records (ice-age climate fluctuations defined and drawn) | p. 353 |
Subaqueous speleothem records: Devils Hole, USA | p. 353 |
Composite speleothem records: Soreq Cave, Israel | p. 355 |
Palaeoclimate hotspots: the Asian monsoon and the nature of glacial terminations | p. 358 |
The timing of Greenland interstadials | p. 358 |
Sea-level records from flooded caves | p. 360 |
Insights into pre-Quaternary palaeoenvironments | p. 361 |
High-resolution snapshots of pre-Quaternary palaeoenvironments | p. 361 |
Dating archives of human evolution | p. 363 |
Questions raised and looking to the future | p. 365 |
Archiving speleothems and speleothem data | p. 368 |
References | p. 371 |
Index | p. 421 |
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