The Spoken Language Translator

, by Edited by Manny Rayner , David Carter , Pierrette Bouillon , Vassilis Digalakis , Mats WirÃ©n

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ISBN: 9780521770774 | 0521770777
Cover: Hardcover
Copyright: 8/28/2000

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This book presents a detailed description of Spoken Language Translator (SLT), one of the first major projects in the area of automatic speech translation. The SLT system can translate between English, French, and Swedish in the domain of air travel planning, using a vocabulary of about 1500 words, and with an accuracy of about 75%. The greater part of the book describes the language processing components, which are largely built on top of the SRI Core Language Engine, using a combination of general grammars and techniques that allow them to be rapidly customized to specific domains. Speech recognition is based on Hidden Markov Mode technology, and uses versions of the SRI DECIPHER system. This account of the Spoken Language Translator should be an essential resource both for those who wish to know what is achievable in spoken-language translation today, and for those who wish to understand how to achieve it.

Preface

Acknowledgements

xvii

Introduction

(22)

What This Book Is About

(5)

Why Do Spoken Language Translation?

(1)

What Are the Basic Problems?

(2)

What Is It Realistic to Attempt Today?

(1)

What Have We Achieved?

(1)

Overall System Architecture

(3)

An Illustrative Example

(3)

In Defence of Hand-Coded Grammars

(4)

Hybrid Transfer

(4)

The Need for Grammatical Knowledge

(1)

The Need for Preferences

(3)

Speech Processing

(1)

Corpora

(2)

Part I: Language Processing and Corpora

(122)

Translation Using the Core Language Engine

(32)

Introduction: Multi-Engine Translation

(1)

Word-to-Word Translation

(1)

Quasi Logical Form

(8)

Introduction

(1)

Structure of QLF

(4)

QLF as a Transfer Formalism: Examples

(1)

Head-Head Relations in QLF

(2)

Unification Grammar and QLFs

(10)

The CLE Unification Grammar Formalism

(2)

Unification Grammar Example: French Noun Phrases

(4)

Example 2a: Clauses in Swedish

(1)

Example 2b: Relative Clauses in Swedish

(3)

Orthographic Analysis and the Lexicon

(3)

Transfer Rules

(3)

Pre-and Posttransfer

(1)

The QLF-Based Processing Path

(4)

Linguistic Analysis

(2)

Transfer and Transfer Preferences

(2)

Generation

(1)

Summary

(2)

Grammar Specialisation

(21)

Introduction

(1)

Explanation-Based Learning for Grammar Specialisation

(9)

A Definition of Explanation-Based Learning

(3)

Explanation-Based Learning on Unification Grammars

(1)

Category Specialisation

(3)

Elaborate Cutting-Up Criteria

(2)

An LR Parsing Method for Specialised Grammars

(2)

Basic LR Parsing

(1)

Prefix Merging

(1)

Abstraction

(1)

Empirical Results

(8)

Experimental Setup

(2)

Discussion of Results

(6)

Conclusions

(1)

Choosing among Interpretations

(20)

Properties and Discriminants

(4)

Constituent Pruning

(8)

Discriminants for Pruning

(3)

Deciding Which Edges to Prune

(1)

Probability Estimates for Discriminants

(4)

Relation to Other Pruning Methods

(1)

Choosing among QLF Analyses

(4)

Analysis Choice: An Example

(1)

Further Advantages of a Discriminant Scheme

(1)

Numerical Metrics

(2)

Choosing among Transferred QLFs

(1)

Choosing Paths in the Chart

(3)

The TreeBanker

(12)

Motivation

(1)

Representational Issues

(1)

Overview of the TreeBanker

100

(1)

The Supervised Training Process

100

(6)

Properties and Discriminants in Training

101

(4)

Additional Functionality

105

(1)

Training for Transfer Choice

106

(2)

Evaluation and Conclusions

108

(2)

Acquisition of Lexical Entries

110

(6)

The Lexical Acquisition Tool, LexMake

110

(4)

Acquiring Word-to-Word Transfer Rules

114

(1)

Evaluation and Conclusions

115

(1)

Spelling and Morphology

116

(15)

Introduction

116

(2)

The Description Language

118

(3)

Morphophonology

118

(2)

Word Formation and Interfacing to Syntax

120

(1)

Compilation

121

(4)

Compiling Spelling Patterns

121

(1)

Representing Lexical Roots

122

(1)

Applying Obligatory Rules

123

(1)

Interword Rules

124

(1)

Timings

124

(1)

Some Examples

125

(3)

Multiple-Letter Spelling Changes

125

(1)

Using Features to Control Rule Application

126

(1)

Interword Spelling Changes

127

(1)

Debugging the Rules

128

(2)

Conclusions and Further Work

130

(1)

Corpora and Data Collection

131

(14)

Rationale and Requirements

131

(2)

Simulation Methodology

133

(2)

Wizard-of-Oz Simulations

133

(1)

American ATIS Simulations

133

(1)

Swedish ATIS Simulations

134

(1)

Translations of American WOZ Material

135

(2)

Translations: A First Step

135

(1)

Email Corpus

136

(1)

A Comparison of the Corpora

137

(2)

Concluding Remarks on Corpus Collection

139

(2)

Representative Corpora and Rational Development

141

(4)

Part II: Linguistic Coverage

145

(84)

English Coverage

147

(21)

Overview of English Linguistic Coverage

147

(1)

Lexical Items

148

(1)

The English Grammar

148

(16)

Noun Phrases

148

(1)

Nonrecursive NPs

149

(4)

Recursive NPs

153

(3)

Prepositional Phrases

156

(1)

Numbers

157

(1)

Verb Phrases

157

(4)

Clauses and Top-Level Utterances

161

(3)

Coverage Failures

164

(2)

Comparison with French and Swedish Grammars

166

(2)

French Coverage

168

(12)

Introduction

168

(1)

Question Formation

169

(7)

Constraints on Question Formation

169

(5)

Implementation of the Rules for Question Formation

174

(1)

Empirical Evaluation Using a Multidimensional Test Suite

175

(1)

Clitics

176

(2)

Agreement

178

(1)

Conclusions

179

(1)

Swedish Coverage

180

(12)

Introduction

180

(1)

Clausal Constructions

181

(5)

Inverted Word Order and Verb-Second Phenomena

181

(2)

Adverbs and Negation

183

(2)

Other Clausal Constructions

185

(1)

Verbs and Verbal Constructions

186

(2)

NP Constructions

188

(4)

Compound Nominals

190

(2)

Transfer Coverage

192

(20)

Introduction

192

(1)

Statistical Breakdown of Rule Types

193

(1)

Overview of the Rules

194

(12)

Identity Rules

194

(1)

Lexical Rules Translating Atoms into Atoms

195

(1)

Lexical Rules Translating Nonatomic Fixed Structures

196

(1)

Date, Time, and Code Expressions

197

(1)

Nominals

198

(1)

Verbs

199

(2)

Adjectives

201

(1)

Prepositional Phrases

201

(1)

Tense, Aspect, Mood, and Voice

202

(1)

Determiners and Pronouns

203

(2)

Conjunction

205

(1)

Adequacy of the Transfer Formalism

206

(5)

Expressiveness of the Rule Formalism

207

(3)

Formal Properties

210

(1)

Summary

211

(1)

Rational Reuse of Linguistic Data

212

(17)

Introduction

212

(1)

Porting Grammars and Lexica among Closely Related Languages

213

(3)

Transfer Composition

216

(7)

Introduction

216

(1)

Transfer Composition as a Program Transformation

217

(3)

Procedural Realisation of Transfer Rule Composition

220

(2)

Composing Transfer Preferences

222

(1)

Improving Automatically Composed Rule Sets

222

(1)

Experiments

223

(4)

Swedish → English → French

224

(2)

English → Swedish → Danish

226

(1)

Evaluation

227

(1)

Conclusions

228

(1)

Part III: Speech Processing

229

(66)

Speech Recognition

231

(9)

Speech Recognition Based on Statistical Methods

231

(1)

Hidden Markov Models

232

(7)

Definition

232

(2)

Observation-Probability Computation

234

(2)

Estimation of the Hidden-State Sequence

236

(1)

Estimation of Model Parameters

237

(2)

The Speech Part of the Book

239

(1)

Acoustic Modelling

240

(10)

Introduction: Discrete or Continuous? That's the Question

240

(1)

Continuous-Density HMMs and Genones

241

(3)

Efficiency Issues

244

(3)

Baseline Experiments

244

(1)

Speed Optimisation

245

(2)

Discrete-Mixture HMMs

247

(2)

Conclusions

249

(1)

Language Modelling for Multilingual Speech Translation

250

(15)

Introduction

250

(1)

Fabricating Domain-Specific Data

251

(2)

Better Use of Domain-General Data

253

(2)

Unsupervised Language-Model Adaptation

255

(1)

Phrase-Based Language Models

256

(6)

Multilingual Language Modelling

262

(1)

Conclusions

263

(2)

Porting a Recogniser to a New Language

265

(9)

The Swedish Speech Corpus

265

(2)

Read-Text Corpora

265

(1)

WOZ Corpora

266

(1)

The Swedish Lexicon

267

(3)

Phone Set

267

(1)

Phonetic Transcription

268

(2)

Lexicon Statistics

270

(1)

Acoustic Models

270

(3)

SLT-2 Models

270

(2)

SLT-3 Models

272

(1)

Conclusions

273

(1)

Multiple Dialects and Languages

274

(10)

Introduction

274

(1)

Dialect Adaptation

274

(6)

Dialect Adaptation Methods

275

(2)

Experimental Results

277

(3)

The Multilingual Speech-Recognition System

280

(3)

Multilingual Recognition Experiments

281

(1)

Language Identification

282

(1)

Conclusions

283

(1)

Common Speech/Language Issues

284

(11)

The Speech/Language Interface

284

(1)

Split verses Unsplit Compounds in Speech Understanding

285

(5)

Introduction

285

(1)

Speech Recognition Experiments

286

(3)

Conclusions

289

(1)

Prosody Translation

290

(5)

Detection of Focal Accent

290

(3)

Prosody Transfer

293

(2)

Part IV: Evaluation and Conclusions

295

(20)

Evaluation

297

(16)

Methodological Issues

297

(1)

Evaluation of Speech-to-Text Translation

298

(1)

Evaluation of Speech-to-Speech Translation

299

(3)

Speech-to-Text Evaluation Results

302

(7)

Pipeline Synergy

309

(4)

Conclusions

313

(2)

A Appendix: The Mathematics of Discriminant Scores

315

(3)

B Appendix: Notation for QLF-Based Processing

318

(5)

B.1 QLFs

318

(2)

B.2 Grammar Rules

320

(2)

B.3 Lexicon

322

(1)

References

323

(10)

Index

333

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The Spoken Language Translator

Summary

Table of Contents

Supplemental Materials