Squatters as Developers?: Slum Redevelopment

In the mid-1990s, the state government of Maharashtra introduced an innovative strategy of slum redevelopment in its capital city, Mumbai (Bombay). Why and how did this strategy originate in Mumbai? What were the key issues in the project's implementation? This critical volume responds to these questions by closely examining one particular redevelopment project: the Markandeya Co-operative Housing Society (MCHS).

List of Figures

ix

List of Tables

x

Preface

xi

List of Abbreviations

xiv

Currency Exchange Rates

xv

Introduction: A New Strategy in Mumbai

1

(18)

The Puzzles of Slum Redevelopment

1

(4)

Placing the Research in the Context of the Literature

5

(6)

Self-help and Enabling the Communities

5

(2)

Slum Upgrading Programs

7

(1)

Enabling the Markets

8

(3)

A Preview of the Arguments

11

(3)

The Logic of Redevelopment

11

(1)

Property Rights, Property Values and Property Attributes

12

(1)

The Paradox of Enabling

13

(1)

Study Methodology

14

(2)

The Dense Data Case Study Approach

14

(1)

A Single Case, Informed by Other Cases

15

(1)

Data Sources

15

(1)

Fieldwork

16

(1)

Limitations of the Study

16

(1)

The Structure of the Book

16

(3)

The Evolution of the Slum Redevelopment Strategy

19

(18)

Introduction

19

(2)

The Mumbai Context

21

(5)

The Evolution of Mumbai's Redevelopment Strategy

26

(7)

Urban Politics

26

(2)

Property Values and Land Differentials

28

(5)

Regulating the Development Potential of Land

33

(4)

The Need for Regulation

34

(3)

Decentralized Conflict

37

(30)

Introduction

38

(2)

Literature Review

40

(3)

Dharavi Redevelopment Plan: Contested Intentions

43

(4)

Prime Minister's Grant Project (PMGP)

43

(1)

Redevelopment Plan for Dharavi

44

(1)

SPARC's Census and Alternative Proposal

45

(2)

PMGP and SPARC: The Battle over Markandeya

47

(5)

Government's Response to SPARC's Plan

47

(1)

Compromise but Further Conflict

48

(2)

Conflicts over Project Finance

50

(1)

Local NGO, Global Connections

51

(1)

Conflicts between SPARC and the Private Contractor

52

(4)

The Informal Cross-subsidy Scheme

52

(2)

Reluctance to Mortgage Land

54

(1)

Irregularities in the Sale of Extra Units

54

(1)

Taking Advantage of the Development Potential of Land

54

(1)

More Policy Changes, More Profit

55

(1)

Uncivil Society: Distrust between SPARC and the Community

56

(5)

Suspicion of the Managing Committee

56

(3)

Ten Years for New Houses

59

(1)

The Bank-guarantee under Threat

60

(1)

Arbitration by the State

60

(1)

SPARC's New Role as a Developer

61

(1)

Reexamining NGOs in Housing Delivery

62

(3)

NGOs and Community Empowerment

63

(1)

NGOs: More Like the Market and the State

64

(1)

NGOs and Autonomy

64

(1)

Decentralization and Centralization in Housing Delivery

65

(2)

Demolition and Redevelopment

67

(36)

Introduction

68

(3)

Literature Review: Tenure Legalization

71

(3)

From Slum Clearance to Slum Upgrading

71

(1)

Slum Upgrading and Property Structures

72

(1)

Slum Upgrading and Property Values

73

(1)

The Physical Structure of Properties in Dharavi

74

(1)

Dharavi's Changing Geography

74

(1)

Slum Upgrading and Slum Redevelopment

75

(5)

Rajendra Prasad Nagar and the Markandeya Slum

78

(2)

Change in Property Rights and Property Attributes

80

(10)

Redevelopment into a Low-rise Courtyard Structure

80

(3)

State Suspicion of Future Encroachment

83

(2)

Adding More Floors

85

(5)

High Land Values and Medium-rise Living

90

(6)

Medium-rise Living as an Outcome of Redevelopment

90

(2)

Slum Redevelopment Projects in Mumbai

92

(4)

Slum Redevelopment and Tenure Legalization

96

(4)

Low-income Housing Myths

96

(1)

Property Rights, Property Attributes and Property Values

97

(3)

Demand-driven or Supply-driven Development

100

(3)

Financing Slum Redevelopment

103

(26)

Introduction

104

(3)

Literature Review: Markets and Partnerships

107

(1)

Markets and Low-income Housing

107

(1)

Public-Private Partnerships and Housing

108

(1)

State Finance for Redevelopment

108

(5)

Prime Minister's Grant: A Revolving Fund

108

(2)

Beneficiaries' Contributions and Housing Loans

110

(1)

Increase in Cost Estimates

111

(1)

Financial Prudence of State Agencies

112

(1)

Private Capital from the Non-profit and the For-profit Sectors

113

(7)

Bank-guarantee from an International NGO

113

(4)

Policy Changes to Attract Private Capital

117

(3)

Institutional Responses to the Scarcity of Finance

120

(4)

The Joint-venture at Markandeya

120

(1)

SPARC's Deal-making

121

(2)

State Initiative to Provide Development Finance

123

(1)

Private and Public Roles

124

(5)

The Problem of Development Finance

125

(1)

Partnerships and Innovation

126

(3)

Enabling Slum Redevelopment in Mumbai

129

(14)

The Mumbai Experience

129

(2)

An Analytical Framework for Upgrading

131

(1)

The Paradox of Enabling

132

(5)

Deregulation and New Regulations

132

(1)

Decentralization and Centralization

133

(1)

Privatization and Public Involvement

134

(1)

Demand-driven and Supply-driven Development Strategies

135

(1)

Enabling Housing Provision

135

(2)

Future Research

137

(3)

Evaluation of Slum Redevelopment Projects

137

(2)

Stakeholders and their Institutional Interests

139

(1)

Urban Collective Action

140

(1)

Squatters as Developers

140

(3)

Appendices

143

(10)

Appendix 1 List of Interviewees

143

(3)

Appendix 2 Property Values in Mumbai

146

(2)

Appendix 3 Scion Shivaji Nagar CHS

148

(1)

Appendix 4 Markandeya CHS: Annexure II, SRD Application

149

(2)

Appendix 5 Cost Estimate of the Rajiv Indira CHS

151

(2)

Notes

153

(18)

Bibliography

171

(14)

Index

185

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Squatters as Developers?: Slum Redevelopment in Mumbai

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Table of Contents

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