Submarine Groundwater

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ISBN: 9780849335761 | 0849335760
Cover: Hardcover
Copyright: 9/29/2006

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Sustainable management of water resources is quickly increasing in importance on a global scale. An important piece of the puzzle is the characterization of marine water and determining its importance to geochemical budgets. To do this, submarine groundwater discharges must be carefully studied. Comprehensively exploring the subject, Submarine Groundwater presents quantitative data relating groundwater contribution to the water/salt balance of regional and global bodies of water.

Chapter 1 Groundwater–Seawater Interaction in the Coastal Zone

(46)

1.1 Present Concept of Subsurface Water Exchange of Land and Sea

(7)

1.2 Groundwater Discharge to Seas

(2)

1.3 Seawater Intrusion into Freshwater Aquifers

(8)

1.4 Submarine Springs

(5)

1.5 Biogeochemical Significance of Submarine Groundwater

(22)

1.5.1 Introduction and Statement of the Problem

(2)

1.5.2 Role of Fluid Composition in Biogeochemical Assessments

(3)

1.5.3 Importance of Recirculating Seawater to Submarine Groundwater

(1)

1.5.4 Relevance of Fluid Composition to Benthic Nutrient Loading

(3)

1.5.5 Sources, Fate, and Transport of Groundwater Nitrogen to Coastal Waters

(16)

1.5.5.1 Nitrogen Storage and Accumulation

(1)

1.5.5.2 Nitrogen Fixation and Nitrogen Fertilization

(5)

1.5.5.3 Denitrification and Volatilization

(3)

1.5.5.4 Summary of SGD-Derived Nitrogen Fluxes

(5)

1.6 Conclusions

(2)

Chapter 2 Methods of Study and Quantitative Assessment of Groundwater Discharge into Seas and Lakes Advantages and Limitations

(94)

2.1 Methods of Land Studying in the Coastal Zone

(41)

2.1.1 Hydrodynamic Methods to Calculate Submarine Groundwater Discharge

(8)

2.1.1.1 Numerical Simulation

(4)

2.1.2 Numerical Modeling of Submarine Groundwater Discharge

(9)

2.1.2.1 Approaches for Representing Coastal Groundwater Flow

(2)

2.1.2.2 Computer Programs

(1)

2.1.2.3 Development of a Numerical Model

(3)

2.1.2.4 Challenges for Simulating Submarine Groundwater Discharge

(2)

2.1.3 Complex Hydrologic-Hydrogeological Method Using Specific Discharge Data

(9)

2.1.4 Mean Perennial Water-Balance Method

(6)

2.1.5 Use of Geospatial Technologies in Mapping and Analysis of Submarine Groundwater

(9)

2.1.5.1 GIS in Mapping and Spatial Analysis

(2)

2.1.5.2 Other Geospatial Technologies

(1)

2.1.5.3 Use of GIS in Groundwater Mapping and Modeling

(2)

2.1.5.4 Study of Inland Seas with GIS

(1)

2.1.5.5 Undersea GIS

(1)

2.1.5.6 Investigations of Submarine Groundwater Discharge

(1)

2.1.5.7 Future Directions for Research

(1)

2.2 Mezthods of Marine Hydrogeological Investigations

(52)

2.2.1 General Remarks

(6)

2.2.2 Direct Measurements of Submarine Groundwater Discharge Using Seepage Meters

(15)

2.2.2.1 Introduction and Historical Perspective

(1)

2.2.2.2 Review of Seepage Meter Styles

(1)

2.2.2.3 Lee-Type Seepage Meter

(1)

2.2.2.4 Heat-Pulse Meter

(1)

2.2.2.5 Krupa Seep Meter

(2)

2.2.2.6 Ultrasonic Meter

(1)

2.2.2.7 Dye-Dilution Meter

100

(1)

2.2.2.8 Electromagnetic Seepage Meter

100

(1)

2.2.2.9 Applications and Environmental Calibrations

101

(1)

2.2.2.10 Anomalous Short-Term Influx

101

(1)

2.2.2.11 Tidal Influences on SGD

102

(3)

2.2.2.12 Wind, Waves, Currents, and the Bernoulli Effect

105

(1)

2.2.2.13 Spatial and Temporal Variations

106

(2)

2.2.2.14 Coastal Zones that can Utilize Seepage Meters

108

(1)

2.2.2.15 Conclusions and R. commendations for Users

109

(1)

2.2.3 Isotope and Tracers Techniques

110

(8)

2.2.3.1 Introduction

110

(1)

2.2.3.2 Uranium and Thorium Series Nuclides

110

(3)

2.2.3.3 Helium

113

(1)

2.2.3.4 Deliberate Tracer Experiments

113

(1)

2.2.3.5 Experimental Techniques

114

(2)

2.2.3.6 Discussion

116

(2)

2.2.4 Study of Anomalies in the Near-Bottom Layer of Seawater and Sediments

118

(15)

2.2.5 Remote Sensing Methods

133

(8)

Chapter 3 Groundwater Contribution to Global Water and Salt Balance

141

(104)

3.1 Groundwater and Hydrogeological Structures of Sea and Ocean Floors

142

(13)

3.1.1 Groundwater of the Silt Sediments of Seas and Oceans

142

(36)

3.1.1.1 Hydrogeological Structures of the Land–Ocean Fringe Zone

144

(4)

3.1.1.2 Hydrogeological Structures of the Ocean Bottom

148

(4)

3.1.1.3 Some Hydrogeological Characteristics of the Ocean Bottom

152

(3)

3.2 Quantitative Assessment of Submarine Groundwater Discharge to the World Ocean from Continents

155

(23)

3.3 The Role of Groundwater Flow in the Formation of a Salt Balance and the Chemical Composition of Seas and Oceans

178

(21)

3.3.1 Computation of Total Salt Transfer with Groundwater Flow to Seas and Oceans

179

(16)

3.3.2 Behavior of Chemical Elements in the Zone of Mixing Groundwater and Seawater

195

(4)

3.4 Influence of Submarine Sedimentation Water on the Water and Salt Balance of Oceans

199

(12)

3.5 Natural Regional and Global Regularities of Submarine Groundwater Formation and Distribution

211

(23)

3.6 Submarine Ground Discharge and Modern-Age Climatic Change

234

(11)

3.6.1 The Climate-Change Puzzle

234

(2)

3.6.2 The Hydrologic Perspective in Relation to Climate Change

236

(1)

3.6.3 Climate-Change Scenarios and Simulation Models

236

(2)

3.6.4 On Climate-Hydrologic Feedbacks and 2·CO2 Uncertainty

238

(3)

3.6.5 A Steady-State Approach to SGD and TDS Response to Climate Change

241

(4)

Chapter 4 Experience of Study in Groundwater Discharge into Some Seas

245

(146)

4.1 Submarine Groundwater Discharge to the Baltic Sea

246

(14)

4.1.1 Quantitative Assessment of Submarine Groundwater Discharge

246

(4)

4.1.2 Chemical Groundwater Discharge

250

(4)

4.1.3 Ecological Aspects of Estimation of Groundwater Discharge into the Gulf of Finland

254

(6)

4.2 Groundwater Discharge to the Caspian Sea

260

(23)

4.2.1 Natural Conditions of the Coastal Zone

263

(3)

4.2.2 Quantitative Assessment and Prediction of Submarine Groundwater Discharge to the Caspian Sea

266

(5)

4.2.3 Regularities in Formation and Distribution of Groundwater Discharge to the Caspian Sea

271

(5)

4.2.4 Role of Modern Tectonic and Mud Volcanoes in Water and Salt Balances of the Caspian Sea

276

(2)

4.2.5 Chemical Submarine Discharge and Its Influence on Sea Salt Balance

278

(5)

4.3 Groundwater Discharge to the Aral Sea

283

(23)

4.3.1 Natural Conditions of the Coastal Zone and Sea

283

(6)

4.3.1.1 Orography

283

(3)

4.3.1.2 Climate

286

(1)

4.3.1.3 Hydrogeologic Regime of the Aral Sea

286

(3)

4.3.1.4 Hydrogeologic Conditions of the Aral Sea and Priaral Region

289

(1)

4.3.2 Quantitative Assessment and Prediction of Submarine Groundwater Discharge

289

(9)

4.3.2.1 Quantitative Assessment of Groundwater Discharge and Flows of Its Formation

292

(5)

4.3.2.2 Water and Salt Regime of Aral Bottom Drying

297

(1)

4.3.3 Regime of Groundwater Level of the Drying Sea Bottom

298

(6)

4.3.3.1 Dust Storms and Salt Ejection in the Priaral Region

303

(1)

4.3.4 Ecological Consequences of Drying the Aral Sea

304

(2)

4.4 Groundwater Discharge to the Black Sea

306

(10)

4.4.1 Natural Conditions of the Coastal Zone

307

(8)

4.4.1.1 Subdivision of Shelf Area

308

(3)

4.4.1.2 Coastal Part of Georgia

311

(1)

4.4.1.3 Shelf Typology and Submarine Groundwater Discharge Estimation

312

(1)

4.4.1.4 Submarine Groundwater Discharge and Pollution

313

(2)

4.4.2 Quantitative Assessment of Submarine Groundwater Discharge

315

(1)

4.5 Groundwater Discharge to the Mediterranean Sea

316

(2)

4.6 Groundwater Discharge to Biscayne Bay, Florida

318

(73)

Chapter 5 Groundwater Contribution to Water and Salt Balance of Large Lakes

391

5.1 Submarine Groundwater Discharge to Lake Baikal

328

(11)

5.1.1 Spring Discharge

328

(3)

5.1.2 Subchannel Discharge

331

(2)

5.1.3 Submarine Groundwater Discharge from the Coastal Zone in Interfluves

333

(1)

5.1.4 Artesian Discharge

334

(1)

5.1.5 Deep Discharge

335

(1)

5.1.6 Calculation of Total Groundwater Component in the Water Balance of Lake Baikal

336

(3)

5.2 Submarine Groundwater Discharge to Lake Balkhash

339

(10)

5.2.1 Natural Conditions of the Coastal Zone

339

(1)

5.2.2 Quantitative Assessment of Submarine Groundwater Discharge

340

(6)

5.2.3 Interaction Between Groundwater and Lake

346

(3)

5.3 Submarine Groundwater Discharge to Lake Issyk-Kul

349

(5)

5.3.1 Natural Conditions of the Shore Zone

349

(1)

5.3.2 Quantitative Assessment of Submarine Groundwater Discharge to Lake Issyk-Kul

350

(4)

5.4 Groundwater Discharge to Some Lakes of Karelia

354

(6)

5.4.1 Natural Settings in Karelia

354

(2)

5.4.2 Estimation of Submarine Groundwater Discharge to Some Lakes of Karelia

356

(1)

5.4.3 Groundwater Contribution to the Water and Salt Balance of the Lakes of Karelia

357

(3)

5.5 Estimation of Submarine Groundwater Discharge into Lake Ladoga

360

(3)

5.6 Specific Features of Water Exchange between Lakes and Groundwater in the Permafrost of the Pechora-Ural Region

363

(12)

5.6.1 Water Exchange in the Zone of Continuous Permafrost

363

(9)

5.6.2 Water Exchange in the Zone of Discontinuous Permafrost

372

(3)

Chapter 6 Remediation in the Coastal Zone

375

(52)

6.1 Technical Requirements and Standards

377

(4)

6.2 Guidance for Tidal Studies Design, Implementation, and Analysis

381

(10)

6.2.1 Tides and Hydraulic Gradient Determination

387

(1)

6.2.2 Tides and Slug/Bail Tests

387

(1)

6.2.3 Tides and Aquifer Pumping Tests

388

(1)

6.2.4 Tides and Measurement of Light Nonaqueous Phase Liquid (LNAPL)

388

(1)

6.2.5 Tides and Groundwater Modeling

388

(1)

6.2.6 Data Presentation

389

(1)

6.2.7 Suspended Particulates

389

(1)

6.2.8 Shallow Aquifer

389

(1)

6.2.9 Seawater Intrusion

390

(1)

6.2.10 Reductive Dissolution

390

(1)

6.2.11 Conclusions

390

(1)

6.2.12 Recommendations

391

(1)

6.3 Lessons Learned from Selected Investigations

391

(3)

6.4 Coastal Contamination Monitoring Technologies

394

(4)

6.4.1 Trident® Probe

395

(1)

6.4.2 UltraSeep® Meter

396

(1)

6.4.3 Recommendations

397

(1)

6.5 Coastal Zone Modeling

398

(1)

6.6 Detailed Case Study

398

(29)

6.6.1 Feasibility Analysis/Interim Remedial Action Plan for a Large Confidential Port Bulk Fuel Terminal in California

398

(14)

6.6.1.1 Site Location and Description

398

(2)

6.6.1.1.1 Surfacewater Flow

399

(1)

6.6.1.1.2 Stormwater Flow

399

(1)

6.6.1.2 Geology and Soil

400

(1)

6.6.1.2.1 Soil Analytical Results

400

(1)

6.6.1.3 Groundwater Occurrence and Flow

400

(1)

6.6.1.3.1 Hydrostratigraphic Units

400

(1)

6.6.1.3.2 Tidal Influence

400

(1)

6.6.1.3.3 Groundwater Flow

401

(1)

6.6.1.4 Groundwater Quality

401

(1)

6.6.1.4.1 Initial Vapor Extraction Pilot Testing

402

(1)

6.6.1.4.2 Initial Air Sparging Pilot Testing

402

(1)

6.6.1.5 Hydrogeology

402

(1)

6.6.1.6 Chemical Analyses—Liquid Phase Hydrocarbons

403

(3)

6.6.1.6.1 Petroleum Constituents

403

(1)

6.6.1.6.2 Bioremediation Indicator Parameters

404

(2)

6.6.1.7 Results of Initial Vapor Extraction Pilot Test

406

(3)

6.6.1.7.1 Vapor Flow vs. Applied Vacuum Relationship

406

(1)

6.6.1.7.2 Radius of Influence

407

(1)

6.6.1.7.3 Extracted Soil Vapor Analytical Results

407

(1)

6.6.1.7.4 Hydrocarbon Mass Removal Rate

407

(1)

6.6.1.7.5 Mass Removal Calculations

408

(1)

6.6.1.7.6 Vacuum Influence, Permeability, and Recommended Design Radius of Influence

408

(1)

6.6.1.7.7 Air Flow vs. Sparging Well Pressure

408

(1)

6.6.1.7.8 Pressure Response

408

(1)

6.6.1.7.9 Dissolved Oxygen Concentration

408

(1)

6.6.1.7.10 Ferrous Iron Concentrations

409

(1)

6.6.1.8 Estimated Radius of Influence

409

(1)

6.6.1.9 Method Observed Radius of Influence

409

(1)

6.6.1.9.1 Measurement of Relative Permeability

410

(1)

6.6.1.10 Risk Assessment under Current Conditions

410

(1)

6.6.1.10.1 Site Conceptual Model

410

(1)

6.6.1.11 Summary of Exposure Assessment

410

(1)

6.6.1.12 Human Health Risk Characterization

411

(1)

6.6.1.13 Ecological Screening Evaluation

411

(1)

6.6.1.14 Parallel Preferential Pathway/Tidal Study Investigation and Risk Assessment

412

(1)

6.6.2 Remedial Action Objectives — Mitigation of Human Health Risks

412

(2)

6.6.2.1 Control of Long-Term Methane Rebound

412

(1)

6.6.2.2 Preliminary Action Levels

413

(1)

6.6.2.3 Soil Vapor

413

(1)

6.6.2.4 Soil

414

(1)

6.6.2.5 Groundwater

414

(1)

6.6.2.6 Risk Assessment for Cessation of Active Remediation

414

(1)

6.6.2.7 General Response Actions

414

(1)

6.6.3 Technology Identification—Soil and Soil Vapor

414

(3)

6.6.3.1 Natural Attenuation

414

(1)

6.6.3.2 Passive Venting

415

(1)

6.6.3.3 Vapor Extraction

416

(1)

6.6.3.4 Bioventing

416

(1)

6.6.3.5 Soil Excavation and Offsite Disposal

416

(1)

6.6.4 Groundwater

417

(1)

6.6.4.1 Natural Attenuation

417

(1)

6.6.4.2 Enhanced Bioremediation

417

(1)

6.6.4.3 Air Sparging with Concurrent Vapor Extraction

417

(1)

6.6.4.4 Air–Ozone Sparging

418

(1)

6.6.4.5 Groundwater Pump and Treat

418

(1)

6.6.5 Analysis of Remedial Alternatives

418

(3)

6.6.5.1 Technologies for Remediation of Soil and Soil Vapor

419

(1)

6.6.5.2 Natural Attenuation

419

(1)

6.6.5.3 Passive Venting

419

(1)

6.6.5.4 Vapor Extraction

420

(1)

6.6.5.5 Bioventing

420

(1)

6.6.5.6 Soil Excavation and Offsite Disposal

420

(1)

6.6.6 Technologies for Remediation of Groundwater

421

(1)

6.6.6.1 Natural Attenuation

421

(1)

6.6.6.2 Enhanced Bioremediation

421

(1)

6.6.6.3 Air Sparging with Concurrent Vapor Extraction

421

(1)

6.6.6.4 Air–Ozone Sparging

422

(1)

6.6.6.5 Groundwater Pump and Treat

422

(1)

6.6.7 Recommended Alternatives

422

(1)

6.6.7.1 Soil and Soil Vapor Remediation

422

(1)

6.6.7.2 Groundwater Remediation

423

(1)

6.6.8 Remedial Action Plan

423

(1)

6.6.8.1 Summary Overview

423

(1)

6.6.9 Long-Term Monitoring and Assessment of Remedial Actions — Remedial Progress Monitoring

424

(1)

6.6.10 Methane Rebound Testing and Evaluation

425

(1)

6.6.11 Risk Assessment for Cessation of Active Remediation

425

(2)

Conclusion

427

(2)

References

429

(32)

Index

461

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Submarine Groundwater

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