Subsurface Hydrology

With an emphasis on methodology, this reference provides a comprehensive examination of water movement as well as the movement of various pollutants in the earth's subsurface. The multidisciplinary approach integrates earth science, fluid mechanics, mathematics, statistics, and chemistry. Ideal for both professionals and students, this is a practical guide to the practices, procedures, and rules for dealing with groundwater.

GEORGE F. PINDER, PhD, is Director of the Research Center for Groundwater Remediation Design and Professor of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Mathematics, and Computer Science at the University of Vermont. He has published many important articles and books, including Groundwater Modeling Using Geographical Information Systems (Wiley). Dr. Pinder's research focuses on the development and application of applied mathematics, especially numerical mathematics, to solve groundwater contamination and supply problems using computers.

MICHAEL A. CELIA, PhD, is Professor and Chair in the Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering at Princeton University. Dr. Celia conducts research in the areas of groundwater hydrology, numerical modeling, contaminant transport simulation, and multiphase flow physics.

Preface

xiii

Water and the Subsurface Environment

1

(51)

Groundwater Hydrology

1

(1)

Groundwater and the Hydrologic Cycle

2

(2)

Groundwater as a Resource

4

(1)

Groundwater and the Subsurface

5

(2)

The Near-Surface Environment

7

(12)

Soil

7

(12)

Porosity

19

(7)

Primary Porosity

19

(1)

Secondary Porosity

19

(7)

Soil Water

26

(1)

Groundwater Contamination

27

(17)

Naturally Occurring Groundwater Contaminants

28

(4)

Anthropogenic Contaminants

32

(9)

Superfund

41

(3)

Quantitative Analysis of Groundwater Problems

44

(4)

Governing Equations

46

(1)

Field Data

47

(1)

Behavior of Groundwater Systems

48

(1)

Summary

48

(1)

Problems

48

(4)

Bibliography

50

(2)

Fluid Flow and Mass Transport

52

(54)

Fluid Pressure

52

(4)

Hydraulic Head

56

(1)

Fluid Potential

57

(5)

Concept of Saturation

62

(8)

The Darcy Experiment

70

(24)

Extended Forms of Darcy's Law

85

(4)

Example of a Groundwater Flow Velocity Calculation in Two Dimensions

89

(4)

Additional Concepts of Fluid Potential

93

(1)

Fluid Flow and Mass and Energy Fluxes

94

(8)

Convection, Diffusion, and Dispersion

95

(4)

The Phenomena of Adsorption and Retardation

99

(3)

Summary

102

(1)

Problems

102

(4)

Bibliography

105

(1)

The Geologic Setting

106

(58)

Unconsolidated Deposits

106

(16)

Clastic Sedimentary Environment

106

(7)

Precipitate Sedimentary Environment

113

(1)

Glacial Environments

113

(9)

Consolidated Rocks

122

(3)

Metamorphic Rocks

125

(2)

Igneous Rocks

127

(6)

Geologic Time

133

(14)

The Hadean Era

134

(1)

The Archaean Era

134

(1)

Proterozoic Era

134

(1)

Paleozoic Era

135

(6)

Mesozoic Era

141

(4)

Cenozoic Era

145

(2)

Field Investigation

147

(4)

Near-Surface Investigation

147

(1)

Deep Subsurface Investigation

148

(3)

The Hydrogeological Record

151

(6)

The Cross Section

152

(4)

The Contour Map

156

(1)

The Measurement of State Variables

157

(4)

Water-Level Measurements

157

(2)

Solute Concentration Measurements

159

(2)

Summary

161

(1)

Problems

161

(3)

Bibliography

162

(2)

Water Movement in Geological Formations

164

(34)

Conservation of Fluid Mass

164

(3)

Conservation of Fluid Mass in a Porous Medium

167

(6)

Groundwater Flow Equations

173

(5)

The Governing Equation

173

(2)

Parameter Estimates

175

(1)

Boundary Conditions

175

(2)

Initial Conditions

177

(1)

Sources and Sinks

177

(1)

The Free-Surface Condition

178

(3)

Reduction in Dimensionality

181

(6)

Physical Dimensions of the Model

181

(1)

Vertical Integration of the Flow Equation

182

(4)

The Free-Surface Condition in the Areal Model

186

(1)

Salt-Water Intrusion

187

(2)

One-Dimensional Formulation

189

(3)

Cylindrical Coordinates

192

(3)

Summary

195

(1)

Problems

196

(2)

Bibliography

197

(1)

Analytical Solutions for Flow Problems

198

(26)

One-dimensional Flow Problems

199

(11)

Darcy Column Experiments

199

(4)

One-Dimensional Regional Flow

203

(3)

Flow in Radial Coordinates

206

(4)

Two-dimensional Flow Problems

210

(11)

Graphical Solutions

210

(8)

Analytical Solutions in Two Dimensions

218

(3)

Summary

221

(1)

Problems

222

(2)

Bibliography

222

(2)

Well Hydraulics

224

(39)

The Slug Test

224

(8)

Hvorslev Method

226

(2)

Cooper--Bredehoeft--Papadopulos Approach

228

(4)

Pumping Tests

232

(28)

Thiem Method

233

(1)

Theis Method

234

(3)

Cooper--Jacob Method

237

(3)

Papadopulos--Cooper Method

240

(2)

Hantush Leaky Aquitard Method

242

(4)

Neuman Method for Unconfined Aquifers

246

(4)

Theis Recovery Method

250

(5)

Image Well Theory

255

(5)

Summary

260

(1)

Problems

260

(3)

Bibliography

261

(2)

Numerical Solutions of the Groundwater Flow Equation

263

(57)

Introduction to Numerical Method

263

(1)

Polynomial Approximation Theory

264

(3)

Finite-Difference Methods

267

(11)

Finite-Difference Representation of the Groundwater Flow Equation

271

(4)

Finite-Difference Method in Two Space Dimensions

275

(3)

Finite-Element Methods

278

(11)

Galerkin's Method

279

(4)

Two-Dimensional Finite-Element Formulation

283

(6)

Finite-Volume Formulation

289

(7)

Two-Dimensional Finite-Volume Formulation

292

(4)

Finite-Element Method and the Transient Flow Equation

296

(1)

Simulation Under Parameter Uncertainty

297

(20)

Introduction to Probability

297

(5)

Random Fields

302

(1)

The Semivariogram

303

(2)

Kriging

305

(3)

Solving Problems Involving Random Hydraulic Conductivity Fields

308

(9)

Summary

317

(1)

Problems

317

(3)

Bibliography

319

(1)

Contamination of Subsurface Water

320

(23)

Types of Contaminants

320

(1)

Mass Conservation

321

(1)

Mass Conservation in a Porous Medium

321

(9)

The Dispersion Relationship

325

(2)

One-Dimensional Transport

327

(3)

Retardation

330

(4)

Chemical Reactions

334

(2)

Numerical Solution to the Groundwater Transport Equations

336

(5)

Summary

341

(1)

Problems

341

(2)

Bibliography

342

(1)

Groundwater-Surface-Water Interaction

343

(23)

Introduction

343

(3)

Fluid Dynamics Near the Stream

346

(12)

Bank Storage Effects

347

(5)

Influence of Pumping Wells

352

(3)

Hydrograph Separation

355

(3)

Chemical Interaction

358

(5)

Summary

363

(1)

Problems

363

(3)

Bibliography

365

(1)

Remediation

366

(38)

Pump-and-Treat

366

(5)

Inward-Gradient Approach

366

(2)

Risk-Based Approach

368

(3)

Soil Vapor Extraction (SVE)

371

(2)

Air Sparing

373

(1)

Some Basic Chemistry

374

(11)

Oxidation--Reduction Reactions

374

(3)

Organic Chemistry

377

(8)

Permeable Reactive Barriers

385

(4)

Bioremediation

389

(8)

The Process

389

(2)

Bioremediation as a Remediation Concept

391

(6)

Optimal Design of Remediation and Management Strategies

397

(4)

Gradient-Constrained Pump-and-Treat Designs

397

(3)

Risk-Constrained Pump-and-Treat Designs

400

(1)

Summary

401

(1)

Problems

402

(2)

Bibliography

402

(2)

Multifluid Flow and Transport

404

(51)

Problems involving Multiple Fluids

405

(2)

Unsaturated Soils

405

(1)

Nonaqueous-Phase Liquids

406

(1)

Fluid Components and Groundwater Contamination

406

(1)

Governing Equations

407

(16)

Mass Balance Equations

407

(1)

Darcy's Law for Multifluid Flow

408

(3)

Capillary Pressure and Governing Equations

411

(4)

Functional Forms for Relative Permeability and Capillary Pressure

415

(2)

Equation for Solid Phase

417

(1)

Equations for Components Within a Fluid

417

(2)

Equations for Components Within the Solid

419

(1)

Reactions, Mass Transfer, and Source/Sink Terms

420

(3)

The Unsaturated Zone and Richards' Equation

423

(11)

Properties of Air and Water and Richards' Assumption

423

(1)

Richards' Equation for Water Flow

424

(3)

Water and Air Dynamics in the Unsaturated Zone

427

(3)

Plant Roots and Evapotranspiration

430

(4)

Solution Methods: Multifluid Flow Equations

434

(17)

Simplified Solutions for Unsaturated Flow

434

(3)

Numerical Solution of Richards' Equation

437

(5)

Analytical Solutions for Two-Fluid Flow: The Buckley--Leverett Solution

442

(6)

Numerical Solutions for Two-Fluid Systems

448

(3)

Summary

451

(1)

Problems

451

(4)

Bibliography

452

(3)

Index

455

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Summary

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