Terrestrial Hydrometeorology
, by Shuttleworth, W. James- ISBN: 9780470659373 | 0470659378
- Cover: Paperback
- Copyright: 1/30/2012
Foreword | p. xvi |
Preface | p. xviii |
Acknowledgements | p. xix |
Terrestrial Hydrometeorology and the Global Water Cycle | p. 1 |
Introduction | p. 1 |
Water in the Earth system | p. 2 |
Components of the global hydroclimate system | p. 4 |
Atmosphere | p. 5 |
Hydrosphere | p. 8 |
Cryosphere | p. 9 |
Lithosphere | p. 9 |
Biosphere | p. 10 |
Anthroposphere | p. 10 |
Important points in this Chapter | p. 12 |
Water Vapor in the Atmosphere | p. 14 |
Introduction | p. 14 |
Latent heat | p. 14 |
Atmospheric water vapor content | p. 15 |
Ideal Gas Law | p. 16 |
Virtual temperature | p. 17 |
Saturated vapor pressure | p. 18 |
Measures of saturation | p. 20 |
Measuring the vapor pressure of air | p. 21 |
Important points in this Chapter | p. 23 |
Vertical Gradients in the Atmosphere | p. 25 |
Introduction | p. 25 |
Hydrostatic pressure law | p. 26 |
Adiabatic lapse rates | p. 27 |
Dry adiabatic lapse rate | p. 27 |
Moist adiabatic lapse rate | p. 28 |
Environmental lapse rate | p. 28 |
Vertical pressure and temperature gradients | p. 29 |
Potential temperature | p. 30 |
Virtual potential temperature | p. 31 |
Atmospheric stability | p. 32 |
Static stability parameter | p. 32 |
Important points in this Chapter 34 | |
Surface Energy Fluxes | p. 36 |
Introduction | p. 36 |
Latent and sensible heat fluxes | p. 37 |
Energy balance of an ideal surface | p. 38 |
Net radiation, Rn | p. 38 |
Latent heat flux, lE | p. 39 |
Sensible heat flux, H | p. 39 |
Soil heat flux, G | p. 39 |
Physical energy storage, St | p. 40 |
Biochemical energy storage, P | p. 40 |
Advected energy, Ad | p. 41 |
Flux sign convention | p. 41 |
Evaporative fraction and Bowen ratio | p. 45 |
Energy budget of open water | p. 46 |
Important points in this Chapter | p. 46 |
Terrestrial Radiation | p. 48 |
Introduction | p. 48 |
Blackbody radiation laws | p. 49 |
Radiation exchange for 'gray’ surfaces | p. 51 |
Integrated radiation parameters for natural surfaces | p. 52 |
Maximum solar radiation at the top of atmosphere | p. 54 |
Maximum solar radiation at the ground | p. 56 |
Atmospheric attenuation of solar radiation | p. 58 |
Actual solar radiation at the ground | p. 59 |
Longwave radiation | p. 59 |
Net radiation at the surface | p. 62 |
Height dependence of net radiation | p. 63 |
Important points in this Chapter | p. 64 |
Soil Temperature and Heat Flux | p. 66 |
Introduction | p. 66 |
Soil surface temperature | p. 66 |
Subsurface soil temperatures | p. 67 |
Thermal properties of soil | p. 68 |
Density of soil, rs | p. 69 |
Specific heat of soil, cs | p. 70 |
Heat capacity per unit volume, Cs | p. 70 |
Thermal conductivity, ks | p. 70 |
Thermal diffusivity, as | p. 71 |
Formal description of soil heat flow | p. 71 |
Thermal waves in homogeneous soil | p. 72 |
Important points in this Chapter | p. 75 |
Measuring Surface Heat Fluxes | p. 77 |
Introduction | p. 77 |
Measuring solar radiation | p. 77 |
Daily estimates of cloud cover | p. 77 |
Thermoelectric pyranometers | p. 78 |
Photoelectric pyranometers | p. 79 |
Measuring net radiation | p. 80 |
Measuring soil heat flux | p. 81 |
Measuring latent and sensible heat | p. 82 |
Micrometeorological measurement of surface energy fluxes | p. 83 |
Bowen ratio/energy budget method | p. 83 |
Eddy correlation method | p. 85 |
Evaporation measurement from integrated water loss | p. 87 |
Evaporation pans | p. 88 |
Watersheds and lakes | p. 89 |
Lysimeters | p. 90 |
Soil moisture depletion | p. 91 |
Comparison of evaporation measuring methods | p. 91 |
Important points in this Chapter | p. 94 |
General Circulation Models | p. 96 |
Introduction | p. 96 |
What are General Circulation Models? | p. 96 |
How are General Circulation Models used? | p. 98 |
How do General Circulation Models work? | p. 100 |
Sequence of operations | p. 100 |
Solving the dynamics | p. 102 |
Calculating the physics | p. 103 |
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) | p. 104 |
Important points in this Chapter | p. 105 |
Global Scale Influences on Hydrometeorology | p. 107 |
Introduction | p. 107 |
Global scale influences on atmospheric circulation | p. 107 |
Planetary interrelationship | p. 109 |
Latitudinal differences in solar energy input | p. 109 |
Seasonal perturbations | p. 109 |
Daily perturbations | p. 109 |
Persistent perturbations | p. 109 |
Contrast in ocean to continent surface exchanges | p. 109 |
Continental topography | p. 109 |
Temporary perturbations | p. 110 |
Perturbations in oceanic circulation | p. 110 |
Perturbations in atmospheric content | p. 110 |
Perturbations in continental land cover | p. 110 |
Latitudinal imbalance in radiant energy | p. 110 |
Lower atmosphere circulation | p. 111 |
Latitudinal bands of pressure and wind | p. 111 |
Hadley circulation | p. 112 |
Mean low-level circulation | p. 113 |
Mean upper level circulation | p. 115 |
Ocean circulation | p. 116 |
Oceanic influences on continental hydroclimate | p. 118 |
Monsoon flow | p. 118 |
Tropical cyclones | p. 119 |
El Niño Southern Oscillation | p. 120 |
Pacific Decadal Oscillation | p. 122 |
North Atlantic Oscillation | p. 123 |
Water vapor in the atmosphere | p. 123 |
Important points in this Chapter | p. 126 |
Formation of Clouds | p. 128 |
Introduction | p. 128 |
Cloud generating mechanisms | p. 129 |
Cloud condensation nuclei | p. 131 |
Saturated vapor pressure of curved surfaces | p. 132 |
Cloud droplet size, concentration and terminal velocity | p. 133 |
Ice in clouds | p. 134 |
Cloud formation processes | p. 135 |
Thermal convection | p. 135 |
Foehn effect | p. 136 |
Extratropical fronts and cyclones | p. 138 |
Cloud genera | p. 140 |
Important points in this Chapter | p. 141 |
Formation of Precipitation | p. 143 |
Introduction | p. 143 |
Precipitation formation in warm clouds | p. 144 |
Precipitation formation in other clouds | p. 146 |
Which clouds produce rain? | p. 148 |
Precipitation form | p. 149 |
Raindrop size distribution | p. 150 |
Rainfall rates and kinetic energy | p. 151 |
Forms of frozen precipitation | p. 151 |
Other forms of precipitation | p. 152 |
Important points in this Chapter | p. 153 |
Precipitation Measurement and Observation | p. 155 |
Introduction | p. 155 |
Precipitation measurement using gauges | p. 156 |
Instrumental errors | p. 157 |
Site and location errors | p. 157 |
Gauge designs | p. 160 |
Areal representativeness of gauge measurements | p. 162 |
Snowfall measurement | p. 165 |
Precipitation measurement using ground-based radar | p. 168 |
Precipitation measurement using satellite systems | p. 171 |
Cloud mapping and characterization | p. 171 |
Passive measurement of cloud properties | p. 172 |
Spaceborne radar | p. 173 |
Important points in this Chapter | p. 174 |
Precipitation Analysis in Time | p. 176 |
Introduction | p. 176 |
Precipitation climatology | p. 177 |
Annual variations | p. 177 |
Intra-annual variations | p. 177 |
Daily variations | p. 180 |
Trends in precipitation | p. 181 |
Running means | p. 182 |
Cumulative deviations | p. 183 |
Mass curve | p. 184 |
Oscillations in precipitation | p. 186 |
System signatures | p. 187 |
Intensity-duration relationships | p. 189 |
Statistics of extremes | p. 190 |
Conditional probabilities | p. 195 |
Important points in this Chapter | p. 196 |
Precipitation Analysis in Space | p. 198 |
Introduction | p. 198 |
Mapping precipitation | p. 199 |
Areal mean precipitation | p. 200 |
Isohyetal method | p. 200 |
Triangle method | p. 202 |
Theissen method | p. 202 |
Spatial organization of precipitation | p. 203 |
Design storms and areal reduction factors | p. 205 |
Probable maximum precipitation | p. 207 |
Spatial correlation of precipitation | p. 209 |
Important points in this Chapter | p. 211 |
Mathematical and Conceptual Tools of Turbulence | p. 213 |
Introduction | p. 213 |
Signature and spectrum of atmospheric turbulence | p. 213 |
Mean and fluctuating components | p. 216 |
Rules of averaging for decomposed variables | p. 217 |
Variance and standard deviation | p. 219 |
Measures of the strength of turbulence | p. 220 |
Mean and turbulent kinetic energy | p. 220 |
Linear correlation coefficient | p. 221 |
Kinematic flux | p. 223 |
Advective and turbulent fluxes | p. 225 |
Important points in this Chapter | p. 229 |
Equations of Atmospheric Flow in the ABL | p. 231 |
Introduction | p. 231 |
Time rate of change in a fluid | p. 232 |
Conservation of momentum in the atmosphere | p. 234 |
Pressure forces | p. 235 |
Viscous flow in fluids | p. 236 |
Axis-specific forces | p. 239 |
Combined momentum forces | p. 242 |
Conservation of mass of air | p. 243 |
Conservation of atmospheric moisture | p. 244 |
Conservation of energy | p. 245 |
Conservation of a scalar quantity | p. 246 |
Summary of equations of atmospheric flow | p. 247 |
Important points in this Chapter | p. 247 |
Equations of Turbulent Flow in the ABL | p. 248 |
Introduction | p. 248 |
Fluctuations in the ideal gas law | p. 248 |
The Boussinesq approximation | p. 249 |
Neglecting subsidence | p. 250 |
Geostrophic wind | p. 251 |
Divergence equation for turbulent fluctuations | p. 252 |
Conservation of momentum in the turbulent ABL | p. 252 |
Conservation of moisture, heat, and scalars in the turbulent ABL | p. 254 |
Neglecting molecular diffusion | p. 255 |
Important points in this Chapter | p. 258 |
Observed ABL Profiles: Higher Order Moments | p. 259 |
Introduction | p. 259 |
Nature and evolution of the ABL | p. 259 |
Daytime ABL profiles | p. 261 |
Nighttime ABL profiles | p. 263 |
Higher order moments | p. 265 |
Prognostic equations for turbulent departures | p. 265 |
Prognostic equations for turbulent kinetic energy | p. 269 |
Prognostic equations for variance of moisture and heat | p. 271 |
Important points in this Chapter | p. 276 |
Turbulent Closure, K Theory, and Mixing Length | p. 277 |
Introduction | p. 277 |
Richardson number | p. 277 |
Turbulent closure | p. 279 |
Low order closure schemes | p. 280 |
Local, first order closure | p. 281 |
Mixing length theory | p. 283 |
Important points in this Chapter | p. 288 |
Surface Layer Scaling and Aerodynamic Resistance | p. 289 |
Introduction | p. 289 |
Dimensionless gradients | p. 290 |
Obukhov length | p. 292 |
Flux-gradient relationships | p. 293 |
Returning fluxes to natural units | p. 294 |
Resistance analogues and aerodynamic resistance | p. 296 |
Important points in this Chapter | p. 299 |
Canopy Processes and Canopy Resistances | p. 300 |
Introduction | p. 300 |
Boundary layer exchange processes | p. 301 |
Shelter factors | p. 306 |
Stomatal resistance | p. 308 |
Energy budget of a dry leaf | p. 310 |
Energy budget of a dry canopy | p. 311 |
Important points in this Chapter | p. 314 |
Whole Canopy Interactions | p. 316 |
Introduction | p. 316 |
Whole-canopy aerodynamics and canopy structure | p. 317 |
Excess resistance | p. 319 |
Roughness sublayer | p. 321 |
Wet canopies | p. 323 |
Equilibrium evaporation | p. 325 |
Evaporation into an unsaturated atmosphere | p. 327 |
Important points in this Chapter | p. 332 |
Daily Estimates of Evaporation | p. 334 |
Introduction | p. 334 |
Daily average values of weather variables | p. 335 |
Temperature, humidity, and wind speed | p. 335 |
Net radiation | p. 337 |
Open water evaporation | p. 339 |
Reference crop evapotranspiration | p. 341 |
Penman-Monteith equation estimation of ERC | p. 342 |
Radiation-based estimation of ERC | p. 344 |
Temperature-based estimation of ERC | p. 345 |
Evaporation pan-based estimation of ERC | p. 346 |
Evaporation from unstressed vegetation: the Matt-Shuttleworth approach | p. 348 |
Evaporation from water stressed vegetation | p. 353 |
Important points in this Chapter | p. 355 |
Soil Vegetation Atmosphere Transfer Schemes | p. 359 |
Introduction | p. 359 |
Basis and origin of land-surface sub-models | p. 359 |
Developing realism in SVATS | p. 362 |
Plot-scale, one-dimensional 'micrometeorological’ models | p. 364 |
Improving representation of hydrological processes | p. 367 |
Improving representation of carbon dioxide exchange | p. 368 |
Ongoing developments in land surface sub-models | p. 370 |
Important points in this Chapter | p. 373 |
Sensitivity to Land Surface Exchanges | p. 380 |
Introduction | p. 380 |
Influence of land surfaces on weather and climate | p. 381 |
A. The influence of existing land-atmosphere interactions | p. 383 |
Effect of topography on convection and precipitation | p. 383 |
Contribution by land surfaces to atmospheric water availability | p. 385 |
B. The influence of transient changes in land surfaces | p. 385 |
Effect of transient changes in soil moisture | p. 385 |
Effect of transient changes in vegetation cover | p. 388 |
Effect of transient changes in frozen precipitation cover | p. 389 |
Combined effect of transient changes | p. 391 |
C. The influence of imposed persistent changes in land cover | p. 392 |
Effect of imposed land cover change on near surface observations | p. 392 |
Effect of imposed land-cover change on regional-scale climate | p. 393 |
Effect of imposed heterogeneity in land cover | p. 395 |
Important points in this Chapter | p. 398 |
Example Questions and Answers | p. 404 |
Introduction | p. 404 |
Example questions | p. 404 |
Example Answers | p. 418 |
Index | p. 441 |
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