Uncooled Infrared Imaging Arrays and Systems Vol. 47

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ISBN: 9780127521558 | 0127521550
Cover: Hardcover
Copyright: 9/1/1997

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This is the first book to describe an emerging but already growing technology of thermal imaging based on uncooled infrared imaging arrays and systems, which are the most exciting new developments in infrared technology today. This technology is of great importance to developers and users of thermal images for military and commercial applications. The chapters, prepared by world leaders in the technology, describe not only the mainstream efforts, but also exciting new approaches and fundamental limits applicable to all.

LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS

(2)

PREFACE

xiii

Chapter 1 Historical Overview

(16)

Rudolph G. Buser

Michael F. Tompsett

I. Introduction

(5)

II. History of Electronic Materials Research for Uncooled Imagers

(3)

1. Ferroelectric-Pyroelectric Materials

(2)

2. Resistive Materials

(1)

III. Uncooled Imaging Arrays Using Silicon Read-Out

(3)

1. Ferroelectric-Pyroelectric Arrays

(2)

2. Resistive Bolometric Arrays

(1)

IV. Future

(2)

References

(3)

Chapter 2 Principles of Uncooled Infrared Focal Plane Arrays

(28)

Paul W. Kruse

I. Importance of the Thermal Isolation Structure

(6)

II. Principal Thermal Detection Mechanisms

(8)

1. Resistive Bolometers

(2)

2. Pyroelectric Detectors and Ferroelectric Bolometers

(4)

3. Thermoelectric Detectors

(2)

III. Fundamental Limits

(6)

1. Temperature Fluctuation Noise Limit

(2)

2. Background Fluctuation Noise Limit

(4)

IV. Discussion

(3)

References and Bibliography

(5)

Chapter 3 Monolithic Silicon Microbolometer Arrays

(78)

R. A. Wood

I. Background

(2)

II. Responsivity of Microbolometers

(28)

1. Microbolometer Model

(4)

2. Resistance Changes in Microbolometer Materials

(5)

3. Microbolometer Heat Balance Equation

(1)

4. Solutions of the Heat Balance Equation

(1)

5. Heat Balance with No Applied Bias

(2)

6. Heat Balance with Applied Bias

(2)

7. Calculations of V - I Curves

(3)

8. Load Line

(4)

9. Low-Frequency Noise in Microbolometer with Applied Bias

(2)

10. Microbolometer Responsivity with Pulsed Bias or Large Radiation Signals

(1)

11. Numerical Calculation of Microbolometer Performance

(4)

III. Noise in Bolometers

(11)

1. Bolometer Resistance Noise

(4)

2. Noise from Bias Resistors

(1)

3. Thermal Conductance Noise

(1)

4. Radiation Noise

(2)

5. Total Electrical Noise

(2)

6. Preamplifier Noise

(1)

IV. Microbolometer Signal-to-Noise

(5)

1. Noise Equivalent Power (NEP)

(1)

2. Noise Equivalent Temperature Difference (NETD)

(1)

3. Detectivity

(2)

4. Comparison with the Ideal Bolometer

(2)

5. Johnson Noise Approximation

(1)

V. Electric Read-Out Circuits for Two-Dimensional Microbolometer Arrays

(4)

VI. Offset Compensation Schemes

(2)

VII. Gain Correction

(1)

VIII. Modulation Transfer Function (MTF)

(1)

IX. Microbolometer Physical Design, Fabrication, and Packaging

(18)

1. One-Level Microbolometers

100

(2)

2. Two-Level Microbolometers

102

(7)

3. Packaging

109

(7)

X. Practical Camera Development

116

(3)

References

119

(4)

Chapter 4 Hybrid Pyroelectric-Ferroelectric Bolometer Arrays

123

(52)

Charles M. Hanson

I. Introduction

123

(1)

II. Principles of Pyroelectric Detectors

124

(30)

1. Pyroelectricity and Ferroelectric Materials

124

(15)

2. Modes of Operation

139

(5)

3. Signal and Noise

144

(10)

III. Practical Considerations and Designs

154

(15)

1. Ferroelectric Material Selection

154

(2)

2. Thermal Isolation

156

(2)

3. Modulation Transfer Function (MTF)

158

(1)

4. Read-out Electronics

159

(2)

5. System Electronics

161

(1)

6. Choppers

162

(7)

IV. Systems Implementations

169

(4)

References

173

(2)

Chapter 5 Monolithic Pyroelectric Bolometer Arrays

175

(28)

Dennis L. Polla

Jun R. Choi

I. Introduction

175

(1)

II. Detector Design Methodology

176

(11)

1. Materials Processing

178

(3)

2. Materials Characterization

181

(2)

3. Thermal Isolation Structures

183

(1)

4. Micromachined Sensor Process Design

184

(2)

5. Integrated Circuits

186

(1)

III. Process Design

187

(2)

IV. Silicon-Based Integrated Pyroelectric Detector Arrays

189

(8)

1. Cell Structure

190

(1)

2. Circuit Operation

191

(4)

3. Silicon-Based PbTiO(3) Array Performance

195

(2)

V. Gallium Arsenide-Based Integrated Pyroelectric Detectors

197

(2)

VI. Summary

199

(1)

References

200

(3)

Chapter 6 Thermoelectric Uncooled Infrared Focal Plane Arrays

203

(16)

Nobukazu Teranishi

I. Introduction

203

(1)

II. Thermopile Infrared Detector

204

(6)

1. Mechanism for Uncooled Infrared Detector

204

(1)

2. Comparison Among Uncooled Infrared Detector Schemes

205

(1)

3. The Seebeck Effect

206

(3)

4. Various Thermopile Infrared Detectors

209

(1)

III. A 128 x 128 Pixel Thermopile Infrared Focal Plane Array

210

(7)

1. Polysilicon Thermopile Infrared Detector

210

(1)

2. Characteristics of a Thermopile Infrared Detector

211

(1)

3. Signal Read-Out Circuit

211

(2)

4. Charge-Coupled Device Scanner

213

(1)

5. Package

214

(1)

6. Performance

215

(2)

7. Future Improvements

217

(1)

IV. Summary

217

(1)

References

218

(1)

Chapter 7 Pyroelectric Vidicon

219

(8)

Michael F. Tompsett

I. History

219

(4)

II. Performance Analysis

223

(2)

References

225

(2)

Chapter 8 Tunneling Infrared Sensors

227

(42)

T. W. Kenny

I. Introduction

227

(2)

II. Sensor Modeling

229

(10)

1. Sensor Thermal Model

229

(3)

2. Sensor Mechanical and Electrical Model

232

(4)

3. Noise Model and Considerations

236

(3)

III. Tunneling Transducer Background

239

(6)

1. Comparison of Tunneling and Capacitive Transducers

241

(2)

2. Tunneling Transducer Design Considerations

243

(2)

IV. Tunneling Infrared Sensor Design and Fabrication

245

(8)

V. Tunneling Transducer Operation

253

(6)

VI. Infrared Sensor Operation and Testing

259

(5)

VII. Future Prospects for the Tunneling Infrared Sensor

264

(2)

VIII. Conclusion

266

(1)

References

266

(3)

Chapter 9 Application of Quartz Microresonators to Uncooled Infrared Imaging Arrays

269

(28)

John R. Vig

Raymond L. Filler

Yoonkee Kim

I. Introduction

269

(2)

II. Quartz Microresonators as Infrared Sensors

271

(1)

III. Quartz Thermometers and Their Temperature Coefficients

272

(1)

IV. Oscillator Noise

273

(1)

V. Frequency Measurement

274

(1)

VI. Thermal Isolation

275

(2)

VII. Infrared Absorption of Microresonators

277

(2)

VIII. Predicted Performance of Microresonator Arrays

279

(2)

IX. Producibility and Other Challenges

281

(2)

X. Summary and Conclusions

283

(1)

Appendix. Performance Calculations

284

(10)

References

294

(3)

Chapter 10 Application of Uncooled Monolithic Thermoelectric Linear Arrays to Imaging Radiometers

297

(22)

Paul W. Kruse

I. Introduction

297

(1)

II. Identification of Incipient Failure of Railcar Wheels

298

(11)

1. Technical Description of the Model IR 1000 Imaging Radiometer

298

(2)

2. Performance of the Model IR 1000 Imaging Radiometer

300

(4)

3. Initial Application

304

(5)

4. Summary

309

(1)

III. Imaging Radiometer for Predictive and Preventive Maintenance

309

(9)

1. Description

310

(2)

2. Operation

312

(5)

3. Specifications

317

(1)

4. Summary

317

(1)

References

318

(1)

INDEX

319

(8)

CONTENTS OF VOLUMES IN THIS SERIES

327

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Uncooled Infrared Imaging Arrays and Systems Vol. 47

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