Metal Based Thin Films for Electronics

This up-to-date handbook covers the main topics of preparation, characterization and properties of complex metal-based layer systems. The authors -- an outstanding group of researchers -- discuss advanced methods for structure, chemical and electronic state characterization with reference to the properties of thin functional layers, such as metallization and barrier layers for microelectronics, magnetoresistive layers for GMR and TMR, sensor and resistance layers. As such, the book addresses materials specialists in industry, especially in microelectronics, as well as scientists, and can also be recommended for advanced studies in materials science, analytics, surface and solid state science.

Klaus Wetzig studied physics at the University of Technology in Dresden, receiving his licence in 1963, his doctorate in 1967 and his habilitation in 1973. In 1975 he moved to the Academy of Sciences, and since 1992 he is Full Professor of Materials Analysis at the University of Technology in Dresden and Director at the Leibniz Institute of Solid State and Materials Research Dresden. His research interests include materials analysis and microstructures, especially electron microscopy of functional materials, characterization of thin films for electronics, and nanostructural features in general.

Claus Michael Schneider studied physics at the RWTH Aachen University receiving his diploma in 1985. He obtained his PhD in 1990 at the Free University of Berlin and his habilitation in 1996 at the Martin-Luther University Halle-Wittenberg. From 1998 to 2003 he headed the Department of thin Film Systems and Nanostructures at the Leibniz Institute of Solid State and Materials research Dresden. Since June 2003 he directs the Institute "Electronic Properties" within the department of Solid State Research(IFF) at the Forschungzentrum Julich, being jointly appointed as full professor at the University Duisburg-Essen. His research interests include solid state physics, thin film systems, surface magnetism and spintronics as well as the physics of nanostructures.

Preface

XI

List of Contributors

XIII

1 Introduction

1

(6)

Klaus Wetzig, Claus M. Schneider

1.1 Prologue

1

(1)

1.2 Organization, Aim and Content of This Book

2

(5)

2 Thin Film Systems: Basic Aspects

7

(134)

2.1 Interconnects for Microelectronics

7

(21)

Ralph Spolenak, Ehrenfried Zschech

2.1.1 Introduction

7

(1)

2.1.2 Metallization Layers

8

(4)

2.1.3 Materials Science of Metallic Interconnects

12

(14)

2.1.4 Function of Barrier and Nucleation Layers and Materials Selection

26

(2)

2.2 Metallization Structures in Acoustoelectronics

28

(20)

Manfred Weihnacht

2.2.1 Introduction

28

(2)

2.2.2 Fundamentals of Surface Acoustic Waves

30

(10)

2.2.3 Interdigital Transducers (IDTs)

40

(4)

2.2.4 Reflector Gratings

44

(1)

2.2.5 Waveguides, Energy Trapping

44

(1)

2.2.6 Multistrip Couplers

45

(1)

2.2.7 Interdigital Transducers with Piezoelectric Layer

45

(2)

2.2.8 Metal Strips with Dielectric Coatings

47

(1)

2.3 Silicide Layers for Electronics

48

(23)

Joachim Schumann

2.3.1 Introduction

48

(1)

2.3.2 The Basic Chemical and Physical Properties

49

(6)

2.3.3 Preparation of Silicides

55

(7)

2.3.4 Silicides with Metallic Conductivity

62

(2)

2.3.5 Semiconducting Silicides

64

(4)

2.3.6 Heterogeneously Disordered Silicide Films

68

(3)

2.4 Complex Layered Systems for Magnetoelectronics

71

(32)

Claus M. Schneider

2.4.1 Introduction

71

(2)

2.4.2 Magnetism: A Primer

73

(1)

2.4.3 Magnetic Coupling Phenomena

74

(8)

2.4.4 Electric Transport in Layered Magnetic Systems

82

(11)

2.4.5 Functional Thin Film Systems

93

(10)

2.5 Multilayer and Single-Surface Reflectors for X-Ray Optics

103

(19)

Hermann Mai, Stefan Braun

2.5.1 Introduction

103

(2)

2.5.2 Refraction and Reflection at Single Boundaries

105

(4)

2.5.3 Bragg Reflection at 1D Lattice Systems

109

(10)

2.5.4 Multilayer Preparation

119

(3)

2.6 Metallic Layers for Photovoltaics

122

(7)

Winfried Blau

2.6.1 Introduction

122

(1)

2.6.2 Solar Cells

123

(1)

2.6.3 Functionalities of Thin Metallic Films in PV Cells

124

(5)

2.6.4 Examples

129

(1)

2.7 References

129

(12)

3 Thin Film Preparation and Characterization Techniques

141

(90)

3.1 Thin Film Preparation Methods

141

(19)

Christian Wenzel

3.1.1 Introduction

141

(2)

3.1.2 Physical Vapor Deposition

143

(10)

3.1.3 Chemical Vapor Deposition

153

(3)

3.1.4 Non Vacuum-Based Deposition

156

(4)

3.1.5 Outlook

160

(1)

3.2 Electron Microscopy and Diffraction

160

(19)

Klaus Wetzig, Jürgen Thomas

3.2.1 Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM)-Imaging

160

(8)

3.2.2 TEM-Selected Area Electron Diffraction

168

(4)

3.2.3 In situ-SEM Methods

172

(5)

3.2.4 Electron Backscatter Diffraction

177

(2)

3.3 X-Ray Scattering Techniques

179

(18)

Michael Hecker

3.3.1 Wide Angle Diffraction

180

(10)

3.3.2 Reflectometry

190

(4)

3.3.3 Soft X-Rays and Magnetic Scattering

194

(3)

3.4 Spectroscopic Techniques

197

(17)

Klaus Wetzig

3.4.1 Element Distribution Analysis

197

(10)

3.4.2 Element Depth Profile Analysis

207

(7)

3.5 Stress Measurement Techniques

214

(11)

Winfried Brückner

3.5.1 Stress and Strain

214

(3)

3.5.2 Substrate Curvature

217

(2)

3.5.3 Measurement Techniques

219

(6)

3.6 References

225

(6)

4 Challenges for Thin Film Systems Characterization and Optimization

231

(118)

4.1 Electromigration in Metallization Layers

231

(17)

Ralph Spolenak, Horst Wendrdock, Klaus Wetzig

4.1.1 Fundamentals

231

(3)

4.1.2 Methods for Quantitative Damage Analysis

234

(3)

4.1.3 Al Interconnects

237

(4)

4.1.4 Cu Interconnects

241

(7)

4.2 Barrier and Nucleation Layers for Interconnects

248

(13)

Ehrenfried Zschech

4.2.1 Introduction

248

(1)

4.2.2 PVD Barrier Layers for Copper Interconnects

249

(6)

4.2.3 Barrier/Seed Microstructure and Step Coverage

255

(4)

4.2.4 New Barrier/Seed Concepts Using CVD and ALD

259

(1)

4.2.5 Atomic Layer Deposition (ALD)

260

(1)

4.3 Acoustomigration in Surface Acoustic Waves Structures

261

(22)

Siegfried Menzel, Klaus Wetzig

4.3.1 General Remarks

261

(1)

4.3.2 Acoustomigration Mechanism

262

(1)

4.3.3 Metallization Concepts for Power SAW Structures

263

(4)

4.3.4 Experimental Setup and SAW Technology

267

(5)

4.3.5 Acoustomigration Experiments

272

(11)

4.4 Thermal Stability of Magnetoresistive Layer Stacks

283

(12)

Claus M. Schneider, Jürgen Thomas

4.4.1 Metallic Multilayers as GMR Model Systems

284

(1)

4.4.2 Co/Cu Multilayers

285

(8)

4.4.3 Ni80Fe20/Cu Multilayers

293

(2)

4.5 Functional Magnetic Layers for Sensors and MRAMs

295

(14)

Hartmut Vinzelberg, Dieter Elefant

4.5.1 Magnetic Multilayers: Layer Thickness Dependence of the GMR Parameters

296

(5)

4.5.2 Spin Valves

301

(4)

4.5.3 Magnetic Tunnel Junctions

305

(4)

4.6 Multilayers for X-Ray Optical Purposes

309

(14)

Hermann Mai, Stefan Braun

4.6.1 Multilayers as Reflectors for X-Rays

309

(2)

4.6.2 Real Structure of nm-Multilayers

311

(8)

4.6.3 High-Resolution Multilayers

319

(3)

4.6.4 Multilayers with Uniform and Graded Period Thickness

322

(1)

4.7 Functional Electric Layers

323

(17)

Joachim Schumann, Jürgen Thomas

4.7.1 Resistance Layers

324

(8)

4.7.2 Thermoelectric Thin Films

332

(8)

4.8 References

340

(9)

5 Devices

349

(50)

5.1 Device Related Aspects for Si-Based Electronics

349

(4)

Ehrenfried Zschech

5.1.1 Interconnect Technology and Materials Trends for Memory and Logic Products

349

(1)

5.1.2 Copper Inlaid Process: Process Integration and Materials Related Topics

350

(1)

5.1.3 Wiring Hierarchy for Copper/Low-k on-Chip Interconnects

351

(2)

5.1.4 New Global Interconnect Concepts

353

(1)

5.2 SAW High Frequency Filters, Resonators and Delay Lines

353

(9)

Manfred Weihnacht

5.2.1 Introduction

353

(1)

5.2.2 Transversal Filters

354

(3)

5.2.3 Resonators

357

(3)

5.2.4 Filters with Spread Spectrum

360

(1)

5.2.5 Delay Lines

361

(1)

5.3 Sensor Devices

362

(11)

Christoph Treutler

5.3.1 Introduction

362

(1)

5.3.2 Requirements for Thin Films to be Used as Transducers

362

(1)

5.3.3 Thin Film Strain Gauges for Pressure Sensors and Force Meters

363

(1)

5.3.4 Thin Film Thermometer in a Micromachined Air-Mass Flow Meter for Automotive Applications

364

(2)

5.3.5 Magnetic Thin Films for Measuring Position, Angle, Rotational Speed and Torque

366

(7)

5.4 X-Ray Optical Systems

373

(10)

Hermann Mai, Stefan Braun

5.4.1 Basic Properties of the Combination of X-Ray Optical Elements

373

(1)

5.4.2 X-Ray Astronomy

374

(3)

5.4.3 X-Ray Microscopy

377

(1)

5.4.4 Extreme Ultraviolet Lithography (EUVL)

378

(2)

5.4.5 X-Ray Reflectometry and Diffractometry

380

(1)

5.4.6 X-ray Fluorescence Analysis

381

(2)

5.5 Thermoelectric Sensors and Transducers

383

(11)

Joachim Schumann

5.5.1 Introduction

383

(1)

5.5.2 Thermoelectric Energy Conversion — Some Basic Considerations

383

(1)

5.5.3 Thermoelectric Sensors

384

(6)

5.5.4 Thermoelectric Transducers

390

(4)

5.5.5 Outlook

394

(1)

5.6 References

394

(5)

6 Outlook

399

(6)

Klaus Wetzig, Claus M. Schneider

6.1 New Functionalities

399

(1)

6.2 Materials-Related Aspects

400

(1)

6.3 Microelectronics — Quo Vadis?

401

(1)

6.4 What You See is What You Get

402

(1)

6.5 References

403

(2)

Index

405

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Metal Based Thin Films for Electronics

Summary

Author Biography

Table of Contents

Supplemental Materials