The Physics of Blown Sand and Desert Dunes

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ISBN: 9780486439310 | 0486439313
Cover: Paperback
Copyright: 1/26/2005

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This classic work was used by NASA in studying sand dunes on Mars and is appropriate for undergraduate and graduate students. The first book to deal exclusively with the behavior of blown sand and related land forms, its accessible style makes it an enduring reference. 84 figures. 16 halftones.

Introduction: The Nature of the Problem

xvii

PART I THE PHYSICS OF GRAIN MOVEMENT

Sand and Dust

The Order of Size of Small Particles. Use of the Logarithmic Scale

(2)

The Definition of Grain Size

(2)

The Suspension of Small Particles. The Distinction Between Sand and Dust

(2)

The Composition of Natural Sand. The Prevalence of Quartz

(1)

The Origin and Formation of Sand Grains

(2)

The Behaviour of Sand Grains in the Air

The Phenomenon of Sand-Driving

(2)

Susceptibility of the Grains to Wind Forces

(3)

Experimental Verification

(1)

The Paths Traced by Sand Grains Through the Air

(1)

Experiments on the Bouncing Properties of Quartz Grains

(3)

Saltation

(6)

Appendix I Calculation of the Susceptibility

(2)

Appendix II Calculation of Grain Motion

(2)

Wind-Tunnel Observations

The Design of a Special Wind Tunnel for Sand Experiments

(2)

Method of Operation

(1)

Observation of the Grain Paths. Method of Illumination

(3)

Saltation Over a Loose Sand Surface, Initiated by Grain Impact

(1)

Saltation Initiated by Direct Wind Action

(1)

Saltation at Higher Wind Speeds

(1)

The Surface Creep

(2)

Surface Ripples

(1)

Saltation Over Hard Ground

(2)

Three Types of Grain Motion: Suspension, Saltation, and Surface Creep

(1)

The Surface Wind

The Measurement of Wind Velocity

(4)

The Surface Drag

(1)

Streamline and Turbulent Flow

(3)

The Transition Condition, The Reynolds' Number

(1)

The Distribution of Wind Velocity with Height

(2)

The Surface Roughness

(1)

The Drag Velocity V* V* Also a Measure of the Velocity Gradient

(3)

Change of Wind Speed Caused by Change of Surface Texture

(2)

The Boundary Layer

(2)

The Effect of Sand Movement on the Surface Wind

Changes in the Velocity Distribution

(5)

The Characteristic Grain Path

(2)

The Drag Caused by Moving Sand. Relation Between V* and Rate of Sand Movement

(4)

Relation Between Wind Velocity and Rate of Sand Movement

(3)

Increase of Sand Movement Over Surfaces Containing Large Grains

(1)

Sand Movement Under Water Compared with that in Air

(3)

The Suspension of Sand Grains in Air

(2)

Confirmatory Measurements in the Desert

The Apparatus Used

(2)

Measurement of the Rate of Sand Movement

(2)

Results

(4)

Threshold Wind Speed and Size of Sand Grain

The Fluid Threshold for Uniform Sand

(4)

The Fluid Threshold for Very Small Grains

(1)

Immobility of Settled Dust and Loess

(2)

The Fluid Threshold for Natural Sand of Mixed Grain Size

(2)

The Impact Threshold Wind

(2)

Summary of the Physics of Grain Movement

The Forces Acting on Single Particles

(1)

The Size of Natural Particles in Terms of the Equivalent Spherical Diameter

(1)

The Turbulence of the Fluid

(1)

Suspension, and Transport Along the Floor. Distinction Between Dust (or Silt) and Sand

(1)

Turbulent Flow Near the Bed

(1)

The Drag τ, and the Drag Velocity V*

(1)

Flow Over a Flat Surface Whose Texture Changes Across a Transverse Border. The Boundary Layer

100

(1)

The Fluid Threshold of Flow Required to Move Grains on the Bed

100

(2)

Sand Movement in Air and Water. The Saltation Drag

102

(2)

Sand Movement in Air. Wind Velocity Distribution

104

(1)

The Impact Threshold

104

(1)

Saltation and Surface Creep. Sand Flow in Terms of Wind Strength

105

(1)

The Mean Grain Path of the Saltation and the Wave-Length of the Surface Ripple in Air

106

(1)

PART II SMALL-SCALE EFFECTS. GRAIN SIZE DISTRIBUTION. SURFACE RIPPLES AND RIDGES

Grading Diagrams

Mechanical Analysis

107

(2)

The `Percentage-Smaller' Diagram

109

(1)

The Block Diagram

110

(1)

The Differential Diagram

111

(2)

The Log Diagram

113

(3)

Symmetrically Graded Sands. Comparison with the `Normal Probability Curve'

116

(2)

Regular and Mixed Sands

118

(5)

Grain Diameter Defined by Sieve Aperture. A Method of Adjustment of Sieve Calibration

123

(2)

Grading Changes in Non-Uniform Sand

The Cycle of Sand Movement. Removal, Transportation, and Deposition. Three Modes of Deposition: Sedimentation, Accretion, and Encroachment

125

(2)

Grading Experiments, and the Representation of the Results

127

(4)

Grading Changes Due to Wind Action During the Cycle of Sand Movement

131

(6)

Summary of Grading Changes in Regular Sands

137

(3)

Grading Changes Due to Mechanical Movement of Grains Down a Slip-Face

140

(1)

How Do Irregular Sands Become Regular?

141

(2)

Incomplete Sands

143

(1)

Surface Ripples and Ridges

Sand Waves and Water Waves Not Analogous

144

(1)

Classification of Sand-Ripples and Ridges

144

(2)

Instability of a Flat Sand Surface. Effect of Changes in the Angle of Incidence of the Descending Saltation

146

(1)

Surface Creep Dependent on the Angle of Incidence of the Saltation

147

(2)

Ripples Formed Under Equilibrium Conditions: (a) Factors Controlling the Wavelength ; (b) Wind Strength and Characteristic Grain Path; (c) The Ripple Height and Shape Depend on the Surface Grading

149

(4)

Ripples During Deposition

153

(1)

Ripples and Ridges During Sand Removal : (a) Limited Removal---Coarse, Steep-Faced Ripples ; (b) Removal Maintained by an Oncoming Saltation---Unlimited Growth of Ridges ; (c) Ridges in Very Strong Winds

153

(4)

Ripple-Less Sand Mixtures. The Surfaces of Sand Sheets

157

(3)

The Transverse Alignment of Sand Ripples in Air

160

(2)

Sand Ripples in Air and Water Compared

162

(3)

Ripples in Snow

165

(1)

Ripples in Very Fine Sand

165

(2)

PART III LARGE-SCALE EFFECTS. SAND ACCUMULATION. DUNES. INTERNAL STRUCTURE, ETC.

Conditions for the Growth of a Sand Surface

Limitations to the Experimental Study of Dune Formation

167

(1)

The Supply of Material for Dune-Building. Nature of the Desert Floor

168

(1)

Sand Storage on a Pebble Floor

169

(1)

Deposition by Accretion on an Existing Patch of Bare Sand

169

(3)

Explanation of Sand Accretion on a Flat Surface in Terms of the Wind Velocity Picture. Distinction Between `Gentle' and `Strong' Winds

172

(3)

The Effect of Varying Wind Direction

175

(1)

Sand Drift Over a Uniform Surface is Unstable Across a Transverse Section. Sand-Strip Formation. Dune-Building by a Uni-Directional Wind

176

(4)

Surrounding Surface not Immobile. Inhibition of Dune Growth by the Spread of Coarse Grains Over the Sand Surface

180

(1)

Fluctuations in the Rate of Sand Movement Over a Sand Surface. The Minimum Size of Sand Dunes

180

(3)

The Influence of Vegetation

183

(1)

The Prevailing Sand-Driving Wind. The Long-Period Sand Movement as a Vector-Sum of Movements During `Strong' and `Gentle' Winds

184

(4)

Sand Shadows and Sand Drifts. General Factors on Which Dune Shape Depends

Types of Sand Accumulation

188

(1)

Sand Shadows Behind Obstacles

189

(2)

Sand Drifts Between Obstacles

191

(1)

Sand Drifts Below Cliffs

192

(1)

The Influence of Cross-Winds on Dune Shape as Suggested by the Behaviour of Under-Cliff Sand Drifts

193

(2)

True Dunes as Deformable Wind Obstacles. General Considerations Affecting the Shape They Assume. The Longitudinal Cross-Section. (a) Gentle Winds; (b) Strong Winds ; (c) Long-Period Mean Wind---Relation Between Rate of Sand Flow Over Dune, and the Shape of the Dune; (d) Formation of the Slip-Face ; (e) The Effect of the Slip-Face on Dune Formation ; The Rate of Advance

195

(10)

The Instability of a Long Transverse Dune

205

(3)

The Barchan Dune

The Crescentic or Barchan Dune. The Observed Wind Distribution Over It

208

(1)

The Shape and Position of the Slip-Face

209

(2)

The Minimum Height of the Slip-Face

211

(1)

The Trailing Wing-Tips. The Lateral Sand Movement Away From the Axis. Sand Leaves the Dune in Two Streams

212

(1)

Non-Uniform Distribution of Sand Supply. Complex Barchans. Fuljis

212

(2)

The Size and Height of Barchans, and Their Rate of Advance

214

(3)

The Effect of Winds From the Reverse Direction

217

(1)

Barchan Belts

218

(3)

Ice Barchans

221

(1)

The Longitudinal or Seif Dune. The Whaleback

The Transition From the Barchan to the Seif Dune Forms

222

(2)

The Seif Shape Varies According to the Long-Period Wind Regime

224

(1)

Movement of the Seif Dune

225

(1)

Growth of a Seif Dune. Grading of Sand Over the Cross-Section. Formation of a Plinth of Coarse Sand at the Base

226

(3)

Seif Dune Chains. Height, Length, Repetition Distance, and Alignment

229

(1)

Whalebacks or Sand Levees. The Egyptian Sand Sea

230

(1)

The Transverse Repetition Distance Between Seif Dune Chains

231

(1)

The Formation of Barchans in the Longitudinal Troughs Between Multiple Seif Chains, Where the Effect of Cross-Winds is Excluded

232

(1)

Dune Systems and Wind Direction

233

(3)

The Internal Structure of Sand Deposits

Consistency of the Deposited Material

236

(1)

Laminar Structure Revealed by the Differential Rate of Water Seepage Through Layers of Varying Grain Grading

237

(1)

Structure of Beds Deposited by Accretion. Their Firmness. Similarity to Wind-Packed Snow

237

(2)

Grading Changes Due to Shearing. Structure of an Avalanched Encroachment Deposit

239

(2)

Structure of a Barchan Dune

241

(1)

Structure of Seifs and Whalebacks

242

(1)

Structure and Growth of Sand Sheets

243

(2)

Water Retention and Vegetation Dependent on the Internal Structure

245

(2)

`Singing Sands'

`Whistling' Beach Sand

247

(3)

The `Song' or Booming of Desert Sands

250

(2)

What Controls the Note, and How Does the Sound Arise?

252

(5)

Index

257

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The Physics of Blown Sand and Desert Dunes

Summary

Table of Contents

Supplemental Materials