Theory and Design for Mechanical Measurements

, by Figliola, R. S.; Beasley, Donald E.

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ISBN: 9780471000891 | 0471000892
Cover: Hardcover
Copyright: 1/1/1995

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Now in its fourth edition, this successful book provides readers with an in-depth introduction to the theory of engineering measurements, measurement system performance, and instrumentation. Emphasis is placed on the use of uncertainty analysis in the design of measurement systems and the statistical nature of engineering variables. Readers will also gain a better understanding of concepts related to system behavior, sampling, and spectral analysis while utilizing the new interactive CD-ROM.

Basic Concepts of Measurement Methods

(36)

Introduction

(1)

General Measurement System

(2)

Experimental Text Plan

(9)

Variables

(1)

Parameters

(1)

Noise and Interference

(2)

Random Tests

(4)

Replication and Repetition

(1)

Calibration

(9)

Static Calibration

(1)

Dynamic Calibration

(1)

Static Sensitivity

(1)

Range

(1)

Accuracy

(3)

Sequence Calibration

(1)

Random Calibration

(3)

Standards

(6)

Mass

(1)

Time

(1)

Length

(1)

Temperature

(1)

Electrical Dimensions

(1)

Force

(1)

Derived Units

(1)

Hierarchy of Standards

(1)

Test Standards

(1)

Measurement Overview

(1)

Summary

(8)

References

(1)

Nomenclature

(1)

Problems

(7)

Static and Dynamic Characteristics of Signals

(42)

Introduction

(1)

Input/Output Signal Concepts

(5)

Classification of Waveforms

(3)

Signal Analysis

(5)

Effects of Signal-Averaging Period

(1)

DC Offset

(1)

Signal Amplitude and Frequency

(15)

Periodic Signals

(3)

Frequency Analysis

(2)

Fourier Series and Coefficients

(9)

Fourier Transform and the Frequency Spectrum

(8)

Discrete Fourier Transform

(5)

Summary

(9)

References

(1)

Nomenclature

(1)

Problems

(8)

Measurement System Behavior

(46)

Introduction

(1)

General Model for a Measurement System

(5)

Dynamic Measurements

(2)

Measurement System Model

(2)

Special Cases of the General System Model

(24)

Zero-Order Systems

(1)

First-Order Systems

(14)

Second-Order Systems

(9)

Transfer Functions

108

(2)

Phase Linearity

110

(2)

Multiple-Function Inputs

112

(2)

Coupled Systems

114

(3)

Summary

117

(8)

References

117

(1)

Nomenclature

117

(1)

Problems

118

(7)

Probability and Statistics

125

(46)

Introduction

125

(1)

Statistical Measurement Theory

126

(5)

Probability Density Functions

127

(4)

Infinite Statistics

131

(7)

Finite Statistics

138

(6)

Standard Deviation of the Means

140

(2)

Pooled Statistics

142

(2)

Chi-Squared Distribution

144

(5)

Goodness-of-Fit Test

147

(2)

Regression Analysis

149

(9)

Least-Squares Regression Analysis

150

(8)

Data Outlier Detection

158

(2)

Number of Measurements Required

160

(2)

Summary

162

(9)

References

162

(1)

Nomenclature

163

(1)

Problems

164

(7)

Uncertainty Analysis

171

(48)

Introduction

171

(1)

Measurement Errors

171

(2)

Error Sources

173

(1)

Calibration Errors

173

(1)

Data Acquisition Errors

174

(1)

Data Reduction Errors

174

(1)

Bias and precision Errors

174

(3)

Bias Error

174

(2)

Precision Error

176

(1)

Uncertainty Analysis: Error Propagation

177

(6)

Propagation of Errors

177

(6)

Design-Stage Uncertainty Analysis

183

(4)

Advanced Design-Stage and Single-Measurement Uncertainty Analysis

187

(7)

Zero-Order Uncertainty

187

(1)

Higher-order Uncertainty

188

(1)

Nth-Order Uncertainty

188

(6)

Multiple-Measurement Uncertainty Analysis

194

(15)

Propagation of Elemental Errors

195

(6)

Propagation of Uncertainty to a Result

201

(8)

Summary

209

(10)

References

209

(1)

Nomenclature

210

(1)

Problems

211

(8)

Analog Electrical Devices and Measurements

219

(50)

Introduction

219

(1)

Analog Devices: Current Measurements

219

(5)

Direct Current

219

(3)

Alternating Current

222

(2)

Analog Devices: Voltage Measurements

224

(5)

Analog Meters

224

(1)

Oscilloscope

225

(1)

Potentiometer

225

(4)

Analog Devices: Resistance Measurements

229

(8)

Ohmmeter Circuits

229

(1)

Bridge Circuits

230

(7)

Loading Errors and Impedance Matching

237

(6)

Loading Errors for Voltage Dividing Circuit

238

(1)

Interstage Loading Errors

239

(4)

Analog Signal Conditioning: Amplifiers

243

(4)

Analog Signal Conditioning: Special Purpose

247

(4)

Analog Voltage Comparator

247

(1)

Sample and Hold Circuit

247

(1)

Charge Amplifier

248

(1)

Current Loop: 4-20 mA

249

(2)

Analog Signal Conditioning: Filters

251

(8)

Butterworth Filter Design

253

(4)

Bessel Filter Design

257

(1)

Active Filters

257

(2)

Grounds, Shielding, and Connecting Wires

259

(2)

Summary

261

(8)

References

261

(1)

Nomenclature

262

(1)

Problems

262

(7)

Sampling, Digital Devices and Data Acquisition

269

(52)

Introduction

269

(1)

Sampling Concepts

269

(9)

Sample Rate

270

(2)

Alias Frequencies

272

(4)

Amplitude Ambiguity

276

(2)

Selecting Sample Rate and Data Number

278

(1)

Digital Devices: Bits and Words

278

(3)

Transmitting Digital Numbers: High and Low Signals

281

(1)

Voltage Measurements

281

(13)

Digital-to-Analog Converter

281

(3)

Analog-to-Digital Converter

284

(9)

Digital Voltmeters

293

(1)

Data Acquisition Systems

294

(2)

Data Acquisition System Components

296

(5)

Signal Conditioning: Filters and Amplifiers

296

(2)

Analog Multiplexers

298

(1)

A/D Converters

298

(1)

D/A Converters

298

(1)

Central Processing Unit: The Controller

298

(1)

Math Coprocessor

299

(1)

Memory

300

(1)

Central Bus

300

(1)

Buffers

301

(1)

Analog Input/Output Communication

301

(5)

Data Acquisition Boards

301

(1)

Single- and Differential-Ended Connections

302

(3)

Special Signal Conditioning Modules

305

(1)

Data Acquisition Triggering

305

(1)

Data Transfer

306

(1)

Digital Input/Output Communication

306

(7)

Serial Communications

307

(2)

Parallel Communications

309

(4)

Summary

313

(8)

References

314

(1)

Nomenclature

314

(1)

Problems

315

(6)

Temperature Measurements

321

(70)

Introduction

321

(1)

Historical Background

321

(1)

Temperature Standards and Definition

322

(3)

Temperature Scales and Standards

324

(1)

Thermometry Based on Thermal Expansion

325

(3)

Liquid-in-Glass Thermometers

325

(2)

Bimetallic Thermometers

327

(1)

Electrical Resistance Thermometry

328

(15)

Resistance Temperature Detectors

328

(8)

Thermistors

336

(7)

Thermomelectric Temperature Measurement

343

(20)

Seebeck Effect

344

(2)

Fundamental Thermocouple Laws

346

(1)

Basic Temperature Measurement with Thermocouples

347

(1)

Thermocouple Standards

348

(2)

Thermocouple Voltage Measurement

350

(8)

Multiple-Junction Thermocouple Circuits

358

(5)

Radiative Temperature Measurements

363

(5)

Radiation Fundamentals

363

(2)

Radiation Detectors

365

(1)

Radiative Temperature Measurements

366

(1)

Optical Fiber Thermometers

367

(1)

Physical Errors in Temperature Measurement

368

(11)

Insertion Errors

368

(3)

Conduction Errors

371

(2)

Radiation Errors

373

(4)

Recovery Errors in Temperature Measurement

377

(2)

Summary

379

(12)

References

380

(1)

Nomenclature

381

(1)

Problems

382

(9)

Pressure and Velocity Measurements

391

(48)

Introduction

391

(1)

Pressure Concepts

391

(3)

Pressure Reference Instruments

394

(10)

McLeod Gauge

395

(1)

Barometer

396

(1)

Manometers

396

(6)

Deadweight Testers

402

(2)

Pressure Transducers

404

(8)

Bourdon Tube

405

(1)

Bellows and Capsule

406

(2)

Diaphragms

408

(4)

Pressure Transducer Calibration

412

(2)

Static Calibration

412

(1)

Dynamic Calibration

412

(2)

Pressure Measurements in Moving Fluids

414

(4)

Design and Installation: Transmission Effects

418

(4)

Gases

419

(2)

Liquids

421

(1)

Heavily Damped Systems

421

(1)

Fluid Velocity Measuring Systems

422

(10)

Pitot-Static Pressure Probe

422

(3)

Thermal Anemometry

425

(3)

Doppler Anemometry

428

(3)

Selection of Velocity Measuring Methods

431

(1)

Summary

432

(7)

References

432

(2)

Nomenclature

434

(1)

Problems

434

(5)

Flow Measurements

439

(46)

Introduction

439

(1)

Historical Comments

439

(1)

Flow Rate Concepts

440

(2)

Volume Flow Rate through Velocity Determination

442

(3)

Pressure Differential Meters

445

(21)

Obstruction Meters

445

(4)

Orifice Meter

449

(1)

Venturi Meter

449

(1)

Flow Nozzles

450

(7)

Sonic Nozzles

457

(2)

Obstruction Meter Selection

459

(5)

Laminar Flow Elements

464

(2)

Insertion Volume Flow Meters

466

(7)

Electromagnetic Flow Meters

466

(1)

Vortex Shedding Meters

467

(3)

Rotameters

470

(1)

Turbine Meters

471

(1)

Positive Displacement Meters

472

(1)

Mass Flow Meters

473

(5)

Thermal Flow Meter

473

(2)

Coriolis Flow Meter

475

(3)

Flow Meter Calibration and Standards

478

(1)

Summary

479

(6)

References

479

(1)

Nomenclature

480

(1)

Problems

481

(4)

Strain Measurement

485

(42)

Introduction

485

(1)

Stress and Strain

485

(3)

Resistance Strain Gauges

488

(8)

Metallic Gauges

489

(6)

Semiconductor Strain Gauges

495

(1)

Strain Gauge Electrical Circuits

496

(4)

Practical Considerations for Strain Measurement

500

(13)

Apparent Strain

500

(3)

Bridge Constant

503

(4)

Construction and Installation

507

(3)

Analysis of Strain Gauge Data

510

(3)

Optical Strain Measuring Techniques

513

(6)

Basic Characteristics of Light

514

(1)

Photoelastic Measurement

514

(4)

Moire Methods

518

(1)

Summary

519

(8)

References

519

(1)

Nomenclature

520

(1)

Problems

521

(6)

Metrology, Motion, Force and Power Measurements

527

(48)

Introduction

527

(1)

Dimensional Measurements: Metrology

527

(9)

Principles of Linear Measurement

528

(8)

Displacement Measurements

536

(4)

Potentiometers

537

(1)

Linear Variable Differential Transformers

537

(3)

Measurement of Mass

540

(5)

Measurement of Acceleration and Vibration

545

(7)

Seismic Transducer

545

(6)

Transducers for Shock and Vibration Measurement

551

(1)

Velocity Measurements

552

(8)

Linear Velocity Measurements

553

(1)

Velocity from Displacement or Acceleration

553

(4)

Angular Velocity Measurements

557

(3)

Force Measurement

560

(4)

Load Cells

560

(4)

Torque Measurements

564

(2)

Measurement of Torque on Rotating Shafts

565

(1)

Mechanical Power Measurements

566

(4)

Rotational Speed, Torque, and Shaft Power

566

(2)

Cradled Dynamometers

568

(2)

Summary

570

(5)

References

571

(1)

Nomenclature

571

(1)

Problems

572

(3)

APPENDIX A DATA ANALYSIS SOFTWARE

575

(6)

A.1 Least-Squares Regression Analysis Program

575

(2)

A.2 Discrete Fourier Transform

577

(4)

APPENDIX B A GUIDE FOR TECHNICAL WRITING

581

(8)

APPENDIX C PROPERTY DATA

589

(7)

Glossary

596

(7)

Index

603

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Theory and Design for Mechanical Measurements

Summary

Table of Contents

Supplemental Materials