75th Anniversary of the Transistor

75th anniversary commemorative volume reflecting the transistor's development since inception to current state of the art

75th Anniversary of the Transistor is a commemorative anniversary volume to celebrate the invention of the transistor. The anniversary volume was conceived by the IEEE Electron Devices Society (EDS) to provide comprehensive yet compact coverage of the historical perspectives underlying the invention of the transistor and its subsequent evolution into a multitude of integration and manufacturing technologies and applications.

The book reflects the transistor's development since inception to the current state of the art that continues to enable scaling to very large-scale integrated circuits of higher functionality and speed. The stages in this evolution covered are in chronological order to reflect historical developments.

Narratives and experiences are provided by a select number of venerated industry and academic leaders, and retired veterans, of the semiconductor industry. 75th Anniversary of the Transistor highlights:

• Historical perspectives of the state-of-the-art pre-solid-state-transistor world (pre-1947) leading to the invention of the transistor
• Invention of the bipolar junction transistor (BJT) and analytical formulations by Shockley (1948) and their impact on the semiconductor industry
• Large scale integration, Moore's Law (1965) and transistor scaling (1974), and MOS/LSI, including flash memories — SRAMs, DRAMs (1963), and the Toshiba NAND flash memory (1989)
• Image sensors (1986), including charge-coupled devices, and related microsensor applications

With comprehensive yet succinct and accessible coverage of one of the cornerstones of modern technology, 75th Anniversary of the Transistor is an essential reference for engineers, researchers, and undergraduate students looking for historical perspective from leaders in the field.

Arokia Nathan, PhD, formerly the Professor of Photonic Systems and Displays at the University of Cambridge, is currently a Bye Fellow and Graduate Tutor at Darwin College, Cambridge.

Samar Saha is an internationally recognized expert on IC device architecture, process and device simulation, and device modeling within the industry and academia.

Ravi M. Todi, PhD, is well known in the semiconductor industry as a technical and business leader and currently serves as IEEE EDS President.

Editor Biography xiii

Preface xv

1 The First Quantum Electron Device 1
Leo Esaki

2 IEEE Electron Devices Society: A Brief History 3
Samar K. Saha

2.1 Introduction 3

2.2 Origins of EDS 4

2.3 Growth of EDS 6

2.4 Publications 10

2.5 Conferences 12

2.6 Awards and Recognition 14

2.7 Conclusion 14

3 Did Sir J.C. Bose Anticipate the Existence of p- and n-Type Semiconductors in His Coherer/Detector Experiments? 17
Prasanta Kumar Basu

3.1 Introduction 17

3.2 J.C. Bose: A Brief Biography 18

3.3 Bose's Work on Detectors 19

3.4 Mott's Remark 21

3.5 Understanding Semiconductors and Doping 21

3.6 Interpretation of Mott's Remark 23

3.7 Conclusion 25

4 The Point-Contact Transistor: A Revolution Begins 29
John M. Dallesasse and Robert B. Kaufman

4.1 Introduction 29

4.2 Background and Motivation 30

4.3 Inventors' Understanding How a Point-Contact Transistor Operates 31

4.4 Recreating the Point-Contact Transistor 33

4.5 Concluding Remarks 40

5 On the Shockley Diode Equation and Analytic Models for Modern Bipolar Transistors 43
T. H. Ning

5.1 Introduction 43

5.2 Adaptation of Shockley Diode Equation to Modern Bipolar Transistors 45

5.3 Modern Bipolar Transistors Structures 46

5.4 Analytic Models for Modern Bipolar Transistors 48

5.5 Discussion 49

6 Junction-Less Field Effect Transistors: The First Transistor to be Conceptualized 51
Mamidala Jagadesh Kumar and Shubham Sahay

6.1 Introduction 51

6.2 Structure and Operation 52

6.3 Salient Features of JLFETs 55

6.4 Challenges for JLFETs 58

6.5 Unconventional Applications of JL Architecture 59

6.6 Conclusions 61

7 The First MOSFET Design by J. Lilienfeld and a Long Journey to Its Implementation 65
Hiroshi Iwai

7.1 Introduction 65

7.2 Demand for the Development of the Solid-State Amplifier and Its Difficulty 66

7.3 Grid-Inserted MESFETs 68

7.4 Lilienfeld Patents for the MESFET and MOSFET 69

7.5 Necessary Conditions for Successful MOSFET Operation, and MOSFET Development Chronology 72

7.6 Status of the Semiconductor Physics at the Lilienfeld Period (in the 1920s) and Thereafter 73

7.7 Improvement of Si and Ge Material Quality and Discovery of the pn Junction in the 1940s 74

7.8 H. Welker's MISFET with Inversion Channel in 1945 75

7.9 Shockley's Group Study for MOSFET from 1945 to 1947 76

7.10 Technology Development in the 1950s Until the Successful MOSFET Operation in 1960 79

7.11 Success of MOSFET Operation by D. Kahng and M. Attala in 1960 81

7.12 After the First Successful Operation of the MOSFET 82

7.13 Summary and Conclusions 82

8 The Invention of the Self-Aligned Silicon Gate Process 89
Robert E. Kerwin

9 The Application of Ion Implantation to Device Fabrication: The Early Days 95
Alfred U. MacRae

9.1 Introduction 95

9.2 Device Fabrication 96

9.3 Summary 99

10 Evolution of the MOSFET: From Microns to Nanometers 101
Yuan Taur

10.1 Introduction 101

10.2 The Early Days: Before 1980 102

10.3 From 1980 to 2000 103

10.4 The Latest: After 2000 109

10.5 Conclusion 113

11 The SOI Transistor 115
Sorin Cristoloveanu

11.1 The Beginnings 115

11.2 The Renaissance 116

11.3 The Smart-Cut Dynasty 119

11.4 Special Mechanisms in FD-SOI MOSFET 122

11.5 A Selection of Innovating Devices 126

11.6 The Future 130

12 FinFET: The 3D Thin-Body Transistor 135
Chenming Hu

12.1 The Show Stopper 135

12.2 The Cause of the Power Crises 135

12.3 The Real Cause of the Power Crises 137

12.4 A DARPA Request for Proposal 138

12.5 The Challenges and Team Work 139

12.6 Further Advancements by Industry 141

12.7 Conclusion 144

13 Historical Perspective of the Development of the FinFET and Process Architecture 145
Digh Hisamoto

13.1 Introduction 145

13.2 Requirements for the End of CMOS Scaling 146

13.3 Restrictions of Planar Process Technology 148

13.4 Prompted Device/Process Technology Evolution by FinFET 151

13.5 Conclusion 152

14 The Origin of the Tunnel FET 155
Gehan A. J. Amaratunga

14.1 Background 155

14.2 Conception 156

14.3 Realization 157

14.4 Relevance 159

14.5 Prospects 159

15 Floating-Gate Memory: A Prime Technology Driver of the Digital Age 163
S. M. Sze

15.1 Introduction 163

15.2 The Charge-Storage Concept 164

15.3 Early Device Structures 167

15.4 Multi-Level Cells and 3D Structures 169

15.5 Applications 171

15.6 Scaling Challenges 173

15.7 Alternative Structures 174

15.8 Conclusion 175

16 Development of ETOX NOR Flash Memory 179
Stefan K. Lai

16.1 Introduction 179

16.2 Background 179

16.3 Not the Perfect Solution 181

16.4 ETOX Development Challenges 182

16.5 Building a Business 183

16.6 Closing Words 184

17 History of MOS Memory Evolution on DRAM and SRAM 187
Mitsumasa Koyanagi

17.1 Introduction 187

17.2 Revolutionary Technologies in DRAM History 187

17.3 Revolutionary Technologies in SRAM History 202

17.4 Summary 210

18 Silicon-Germanium Heterojunction Bipolar Transistors: A Retrospective 215
Subramanian S. Iyer and John D. Cressler

18.1 Introduction (JDC) 215

18.2 Some History from Early Days at IBM Research (SSI) 218

18.3 SiGe Epitaxy and Making the First SiGe Transistor (SSI) 221

18.4 MBE vs. UHV/CVD vs. APCVD for SiGe epi (SSI) 224

18.5 Putting Physics to Work - The Properties of SiGe HBTs (JDC) 225

18.6 SiGe BiCMOS: Devices to Circuits to Systems (JDC and SSI) 228

18.7 Using SiGe in Extreme Environments (JDC) 231

18.8 New Directions (JDC and SSI) 234

18.9 Some Parting Words (SSI) 235

19 The 25-Year Disruptive Path of InP/GaAsSb Double Heterojunction Bipolar Transistors 239
Colombo R. Bolognesi

19.1 Introduction 239

19.2 Phase I: Simon Fraser Years (1995-2006) 242

19.3 Phase II: ETH Years (2006-2022) 246

19.4 Response to Innovation 248

19.5 Final Words 249

20 The High Electron Mobility Transistor: 40 Years of Excitement and Surprises 253
Jesús A. del Alamo

20.1 Introduction 253

20.2 HEMT Electronics 254

20.3 Modulation-Doped Structures in Physics 257

20.4 Exciting Prospects 258

20.5 Conclusions 259

21 The Thin Film Transistor and Emergence of Large Area, Flexible Electronics and Beyond 263
Yue Kuo, Jin Jang, and Arokia Nathan

21.1 Birth of Large Area Electronics 263

21.2 Polycrystalline Silicon and Oxide Thin Film Transistor 265

21.3 Trends in TFT Development 266

22 Imaging Inventions: Charge-Coupled Devices 273
Michael F. Tompsett

22.1 Setting the Stage for the Invention of the Charge-Coupled Device (CCD) 273

22.2 The Invention of the CCD 274

22.3 Verifying the CCD Concept 275

22.4 The Invention of CCD Imagers 276

22.5 The First Solid-State Color TV Camera 276

22.6 Mixed Analog Design Modem Chip 278

23 The Invention and Development of CMOS Image Sensors: A Camera in Every Pocket 281
Eric R. Fossum

23.1 Introduction 281

23.2 Underlying Technology 282

23.3 Early Solid-State Image Sensors 283

23.4 Invention of CMOS Image Sensors 285

23.5 Photon-Counting CMOS Image Sensors 288

23.6 Conclusion 290

24 From Transistors to Microsensors: A Memoir 293
Henry Baltes

24.1 Early Encounters 293

24.2 Integration 293

24.3 Silicon Sensors 294

24.4 Transistor Sensors 294

24.5 CMOS End Fabrication 296

24.6 Outlook 297

25 Creation of the Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor 299
B. Jayant Baliga

25.1 Introduction 299

25.2 Historical Context 300

25.3 The Brock Effect 301

25.4 My IGBT Proposal 301

25.5 The Welch Edict 301

25.6 Manufacturing the First IGBT Product 302

25.7 First IGBT Product Release 303

25.8 IGBT Technology Enhancement 304

25.9 IGBT Evolution 305

25.10 IGBT Applications 306

25.11 IGBT Social Impact 306

25.12 My Sentiments 307

26 The History of Noise in Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor Field-Effect Transistors 309
Renuka P. Jindal

26.1 Introduction 309

26.2 MOSFET Noise Time Line 310

26.3 Channel Thermal Noise 311

26.4 Induced Gate and Substrate Current Noise 311

26.5 Gate-Drain Current Noise Cross Correlation 312

26.6 Equilibrium Noise 312

26.7 Bulk Charge Effects 312

26.8 Gate Resistance Noise 313

26.9 Substrate Resistance Noise 313

26.10 Substrate and Gate Current Noise 313

26.11 Short-Channel Effects 314

26.12 Effect on Channel Thermal Noise 315

26.13 1/f Noise 316

26.14 Conclusions 316

27 A Miraculously Reliable Transistor: A Short History 323
Muhammad Ashraful Alam and Ahmed Ehteshamul Islam

27.1 Introduction: A Transistor is Born 323

27.2 Transistor Reliability in the Proto-Scaling Era 325

27.3 Reliability of Geometric-and Equivalent-Scaling Eras 325

27.4 Conclusions: Reliability Challenges for the Hyper-Scaling and Functional-Scaling Eras 330

28 Technology Computer-Aided Design: A Key Component of Microelectronics' Development 337
Siegfried Selberherr and Viktor Sverdlov

28.1 Introduction 337

28.2 Short History 338

28.3 Scaling and Model Complexity 339

28.4 MINIMOS Commercialization and Beyond 342

28.5 Design Technology Co-Optimization at Advanced Nodes 343

28.6 Electron Spin for Microelectronics 343

28.7 Summary and Outlook 344

29 Early Integrated Circuits 349
Willy Sansen

30 A Path to the One-Chip Mixed-Signal SoC for Digital Video Systems 355
Akira Matsuzawa

30.1 Introduction 355

30.2 Bipolar ADCs at Early Development Stage of Digital TVs 356

30.3 A CMOS ADC for Digital Handy Camcorder 360

30.4 One-Chip Mixed-Signal SoC for DVD 363

31 Historical Perspective of the Nonvolatile Memory and Emerging Computing Paradigms 369
Ming Liu

31.1 Introduction 369

31.2 Rise of Solid-State Nonvolatile Memory 370

31.3 NVM in Classical Computer Architectures 373

31.4 NVM-Driven New Computing Paradigm 375

31.5 Conclusion 376

32 CMOS Enabling Quantum Computing 379
Edoardo Charbon

32.1 Why Cryogenic Electronics? 379

32.2 The Quantum Stack 380

32.3 Modeling Cryo-CMOS Devices 380

32.4 Specific Effects in Cryo-CMOS Transistors 383

32.5 Perspectives and Trends 383

33 Materials and Interfaces: How They Contributed to Transistor Development 387
Bruce Gnade

33.1 Introduction 387

33.2 Back-End-of-Line 388

33.3 Channel Materials 389

33.4 Gate Stack 390

33.5 Contacts 391

33.6 Summary 391

34 The Magic of MOSFET Manufacturing 393
Kelin J. Kuhn

34.1 Introduction 393

34.2 The Magic of MOS 394

34.3 The Magic of Self-alignment 397

34.4 The Magic of Semiconductor Manufacturing 398

34.5 Transistor Magic for the NEXT 75 Years? 400

35 Materials Innovation: Key to Past and Future Transistor Scaling 403
Tsu-Jae King Liu and Lars P. Tatum

35.1 Introduction 403

35.2 MOSFET Basics 404

35.3 Complementary MOS (CMOS) Technology 407

35.4 MOSFET Scaling Challenges 408

35.5 MOSFET Materials Innovations 410

35.6 Outlook for Continued Transistor Scaling 411

36 Germanium: Back to the Future 415
Krishna C. Saraswat

36.1 Introduction 415

36.2 Need for High Mobility Material for MOS Channel 417

36.3 Surface Passivation of Ge-Based MOSFETs 418

36.4 Low Resistance Contacts to Ge 420

36.5 Heteroepitaxial Growth of Ge on Si 422

36.6 Strained Ge and Heterostructure FETs 423

36.7 Nanoscale Ge FETs 425

36.8 Ge NMOSFETs 425

36.9 Ge-Based Novel Devices for Optical Interconnects 426

36.10 Summary 427

Acknowledgment 427

References 428

Index 431

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