Elint : The Interception and Analysis of Radar Signals

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ISBN: 9781580539258 | 1580539254
Cover: Hardcover
Copyright: 4/30/2006

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In these times correctly and quickly identifying a stray electronic blip on a radar screen can have incalculable consequences. Now more than ever, radar electronic intelligence (ELINT) can be the first line of defense for the battlefield or the homeland. Offering new insight into radar signal analysis, this book ensures more reliable and timely gathering of electronic intelligence. Combining and updating the author's two previous definitive books on ELINT, this volume is the indispensable reference for every ELINT professional.

Preface

xiii

CHAPTER 1 Electronic Intelligence

(8)

1.1 Electronic Intelligence Defined

(1)

1.2 The Importance of Intercepting and Analyzing Radar Signals

(2)

1.3 Limitations Due to Noise

(1)

1.4 Probability of Intercept Problems

(1)

1.5 Direction Finding (DF) and Emitter Location

(1)

1.6 Inferring Radar Capabilities from Observed Signal Parameters

(1)

1.7 Receivers for Radar Interception

(1)

1.8 Major ELINT Signal Parameters

(1)

1.9 The Impact of LPI Radar on ELINT

(1)

References

(1)

CHAPTER 2 ELINT Implications of Range Equations and Radar Constraints

(20)

2.1 Range Equations

(3)

2.2 Radar Constraints

(11)

2.2.1 Range Resolution Related to Bandwidth

(1)

2.2.2 Spread Spectrum: Radar Versus Communications

(1)

2.2.3 Moving Targets and Integration Time Constraints

(1)

2.2.4 Constraints on Time-Bandwidth Product or Pulse Compression Ratio

(1)

2.2.5 Constraints on Doppler Resolution

(3)

2.2.6 Frequency Agility

(1)

2.2.7 PRI Agility

(4)

2.2.8 Power Constraints

(1)

2.2.9 Pulse Compression Modulation Constraints

(1)

2.3 Some ELINT Implications of Future Radar Designs

(3)

2.3.1 Bistatic and Multistatic Radars

(1)

2.3.2 Radar Trends

(2)

2.3.3 Wideband Active Adaptive Array Radars

(1)

2.4 Summary of Radar Design Constraints and Trends

(1)

2.5 High-Power Microwave Weapons

(1)

References

(1)

CHAPTER 3 Characteristics of ELINT Interception Systems

(68)

3.1 Intercept System Characteristics and Functions

(1)

3.2 Frequency Coverage

(1)

3.3 Analysis Bandwidth

(4)

3.3.1 Wideband Radar Signal Trends

(2)

3.4 Dynamic Range

(4)

3.4.1 Dynamic Range Requirements

(2)

3.5 Sensitivity

(13)

3.5.1 Noise Figure Measurement

(1)

3.5.2 Y-Factor Measurement

(2)

3.5.3 Some Sensitivity Measures

(1)

3.5.4 Output SNR and Receiver Applications

(1)

3.5.5 Threshold Detection

(6)

3.5.6 Sensitivity and the Received Pulse Density

(1)

3.6 The Ultimate Limits to ELINT Parameter Measurements

(4)

3.7 ECM and ELINT Receivers

(1)

3.8 Crystal Video Receivers

(7)

3.8.1 Crystal Video Applications

(1)

3.8.2 Postdetection Signal Recording and Sorting

(1)

3.8.3 CV System Design Considerations

(3)

3.9 Superheterodyne Receivers

(11)

3.9.1 Superhet Performance

(2)

3.9.2 Sweeping Superhet Receivers

(3)

3.9.3 Tuning Considerations

(2)

3.9.4 Other Heterodyne Receivers

(2)

3.10 Instantaneous Frequency Measurement Receivers

(11)

3.10.1 Limiters Applied to IFMs

(1)

3.10.2 The Simultaneous Signal Problem

(6)

3.10.3 CW Signals and IFMs

(1)

3.10.4 Digitizing the IFM Output

(3)

3.11 Other Receivers

(8)

3.11.1 Channelized Receivers

(4)

3.11.2 Acousto-Optic (Bragg Cell) Receivers

(1)

3.11.3 Microscan Receivers

(3)

3.12 System Considerations

(1)

References

(3)

CHAPTER 4 Probability of Intercept

(20)

4.1 Background

(1)

4.2 Developments in the Theory Behind POI

(16)

4.2.1 Intercept Description

(1)

4.2.2 Implications of Today's Environments/Operations on Intercept Time

(2)

4.2.3 Mathematical Models

100

(8)

4.2.4 Recent Developments on POI

108

(6)

4.3 Summary

114

(1)

References

114

(3)

CHAPTER 5 Antennas and Direction Finders

117

(32)

5.1 Omni-Directional Antennas

117

(4)

5.1.1 Omni-Directional Antenna Applications

117

(1)

5.1.2 Parameters for Omni-Directional Antennas

118

(3)

5.2 Directional Intercept Antennas

121

(3)

5.3 Direction Finding

124

(2)

5.4 Instantaneous Direction Finding

126

(18)

5.4.1 Amplitude Comparison AOA Measurement

127

(4)

5.4.2 Phase Interferometers

131

(8)

5.4.3 Bearing Discriminators

139

(5)

5.5 Arrays, Lenses, and Subspace DF Methods

144

(1)

5.6 Short Baseline TDOA for AOA

145

(2)

References

147

(2)

CHAPTER 6 Emitter Location

149

(20)

6.1 Introduction

149

(1)

6.2 Emitter Location Estimation

150

(2)

6.3 Deriving the Location Covariance Matrix

152

(1)

6.4 Angle of Arrival Location Analysis

153

(2)

6.5 Time Difference of Arrival Location Analysis

155

(4)

6.6 Time/Frequency Difference of Arrival Location Analysis

159

(4)

6.7 Geometric Dilution of Precision

163

(1)

6.8 Incorporation of Measurement Error

164

(3)

6.9 Summary

167

(1)

References

168

(1)

CHAPTER 7 Estimating Power at the Transmitter

169

(14)

7.1 Power Estimation Through ELINT

169

(1)

7.2 Distance to the Horizon

170

(1)

7.3 ERP Errors Due to Antenna Pointing Errors

171

(3)

7.4 Estimating the Distance to the Radar

174

(2)

7.5 Multiple Signal and Multipath Problems

176

(2)

7.6 Summary of Power Measurement Requirements

178

(1)

7.7 Sample ERP Calculations

179

(2)

References

181

(2)

CHAPTER 8 Antenna Parameters

183

(28)

8.1 Polarization Defined

183

(1)

8.2 Elliptical Polarization

183

(2)

8.3 Stokes' Parameters

185

(2)

8.4 Measuring Polarization

187

(4)

8.4.1 Polarization Pattern Method

188

(1)

8.4.2 Phase-Amplitude Method

189

(1)

8.4.3 Multiple Antenna Method

190

(1)

8.5 Cross-Polarization

191

(3)

8.6 Propagation Effects

194

(1)

8.7 System Aspects of Polarization

195

(1)

8.8 Antenna Beam Shape

196

(1)

8.9 Basic Antenna Pattern Relationships

197

(2)

8.10 Beam Patterns from FLINT

199

(6)

8.11 Beam Patterns of Array Antennas

205

(3)

8.12 Antenna Beam Summary

208

(1)

References

209

(2)

CHAPTER 9 LPI Radar and the Future of ELINT

211

(24)

9.1 What Is LPI Radar?

211

(1)

9.2 Radar and FLINT Detection of Signals

212

(1)

9.3 Matched Filter Theory

213

(1)

9.4 One Interception Strategy: Noncoherent Integration

213

(1)

9.5 ESM and Radar Range Compared

214

(3)

9.6 Some Pulse Compression Modulation Constraints

217

(1)

9.7 Interception Techniques Using the Envelope of the Received Signal

218

(9)

9.8 Narrowband Channels and Frequency Modulated Signals

227

9.9 Predetection Processing Methods to Detect Linear FM and Other LPI Signals

226

(6)

9.10 FLINT Receiver Requirements for Interception of Low Peak Power Signals

232

(1)

Reference

233

(2)

CHAPTER 10 Antenna Scan Analysis

235

(20)

10.1 Introduction

235

(1)

10.2 Some Principles of Searching

236

(1)

10.3 Relationships Among Scan Rate, Maximum Unambiguous Range, and Energy on Target

237

(2)

10.4 Fan Beam Scanning: Circular and Sector

239

(6)

10.5 Pencil Beam Scanning: Raster, Helical, and Spiral

245

(1)

10.6 Tracking Scans and Monopulse

246

(5)

10.7 Electronic Scanning

251

(1)

10.8 Scan Measurement and Analysis Techniques

252

(1)

10.9 A Three-Dimensional Search Example

253

(1)

References

254

(1)

CHAPTER 11 Intrapulse Analysis

255

(26)

11.1 Introduction

255

(2)

11.2 Pulse Envelope Parameters

257

(1)

11.3 Envelope Parameter Measurements

258

(6)

11.3.1 Rise and Fall Times

260

(4)

11.4 Some Radar Performance Limits Related to Pulse Envelope

264

(2)

11.5 Multipath Effects

266

(2)

11.6 Intrapulse Frequency and Phase Modulation

268

(4)

11.6.1 Choosing the Receiver Bandwidth

271

(1)

11.7 Intentionally Modulated Pulses

272

(3)

11.8 Incidental Intrapulse Shape—Uses and Causes

275

(3)

11.9 Comparing Wave Shapes

278

(2)

References

280

(1)

CHAPTER 12 Pulse Repetition Interval Analysis

281

(36)

12.1 Introduction

281

(1)

12.2 Common PRI Categories

282

(5)

12.2.1 Constant PRI

282

(2)

12.2.2 Jittered PRIs

284

(1)

12.2.3 Dwell and Switch PRI

285

(1)

12.2.4 PRI Stagger

285

(1)

12.2.5 Sliding PRIs

286

(1)

12.2.6 Scheduled PRIs

286

(1)

12.2.7 Periodic PRI Variations

287

(1)

12.2.8 Pulse Groups

287

(1)

12.3 Time Interval Measurements

287

(8)

12.3.1 SNR Limitations

288

(1)

12.3.2 Limitations Due to Pulse Amplitude Changes

289

(3)

12.3.3 Improving Interval Measurements

292

(2)

12.3.4 Digital Thresholding

294

(1)

12.4 PRI Analysis Techniques

295

(3)

12.4.1 Raster Displays

296

(1)

12.4.2 PRI Sounds

297

(1)

12.5 PRI Analysis Theory and Practice

298

(9)

12.5.1 Statistical Techniques

300

(3)

12.5.2 Delta-T Histogram

303

(4)

12.6 Interpreting the Results

307

(6)

12.6.1 Delay Line PRI Generators

308

(1)

12.6.2 Crystal Oscillators and Countdown Circuits

308

(5)

12.7 PRI and Range Velocity Ambiguities

313

(1)

12.8 MTI Radar Blind Speeds

313

(1)

12.9 Moving Target Detection

314

References

(286)

CHAPTER 13 Deinterleaving Pulse Trains

317

(18)

13.1 Pulse Sorting

317

(2)

13.2 PRI-Based Gating

319

(1)

13.3 Deinterleaving Algorithms

320

(2)

13.4 Delta-T Histogram Applied to Deinterleaving

322

(9)

13.5 The Pulse Train Spectrum

331

(1)

13.6 Combining Pulse Bursts

332

(1)

13.7 Raster Displays and Deinterleaving

333

(1)

13.8 Measuring Deinterleaver Performance

333

(1)

References

334

(1)

CHAPTER 14 Measurement and Analysis of Carrier Frequency

335

(32)

14.1 Pulsed Signal Carrier Frequency

335

(3)

14.1.1 Frequency Measurement Accuracies

335

(2)

14.1.2 Doppler Shifts

337

(1)

14.1.3 Drift Measurement

337

(1)

14.1.4 FM Ranging in Radar

338

(1)

14.2 Intrapulse Frequency or Phase Modulation

338

(4)

14.2.1 Analysis of Predetection Data

342

(1)

14.3 Coherence (Short-Term RF Stability)

342

(19)

14.3.1 RMS Phase Fluctuation

346

(1)

14.3.2 RMS Frequency Fluctuations

347

(3)

14.3.3 Signal Repeatability

350

(2)

14.3.4 Effects of Variations in τ0

352

(1)

14.3.5 Frequency-Domain Stability Measures

353

(1)

14.3.6 Bandwidth Limitations on Allan Variance Measurements

354

(2)

14.3.7 Noise Limitations on Allan Variance Measurements

356

(1)

14.3.8 Frequency Stability Measures for Power Law Spectra

357

(2)

14.3.9 Sinusoidal FM and Linear Frequency Drift

359

(1)

14.3.10 Short-Look Problem

359

(2)

14.4 Frequency Character of CW Signals

361

(1)

14.5 Pulsed Signal Example

361

(3)

14.6 Measuring Coherence

364

(1)

14.7 Effects of Drift

365

(1)

References

365

(2)

CHAPTER 15 Determining ELINT Parameter Limits

367

(16)

15.1 Introduction

367

(1)

15.2 Histograms Used to Determine Parameter Limits

367

(3)

15.3 Types of Histograms

370

(3)

15.4 Two-Sigma Parameter Limits

373

(2)

15.5 Histogram Analysis Techniques

375

(4)

15.5.1 Parameter Limits Example

375

(2)

15.5.2 Intercepts Separated into Accuracy Classes

377

(1)

15.5.3 Most Probable Values

378

(1)

15.6 Analysis Problems

379

(2)

15.6.1 Signal Identification Errors

379

(1)

15.6.2 Transforming Parameters and Their Accuracies

379

(2)

15.7 Histogram Analysis Summary

381

(1)

References

382

(1)

CHAPTER 16 ELI NT Data Files

383

(8)

16.1 Introduction

383

(2)

16.2 Signal Identification

385

(1)

16.3 ELINT Data for Radar Warning Receiver Design

386

(2)

16.4 ELINT Data for Simulation and Training

388

(1)

16.5 Adding Non-ELINT Data

388

(1)

16.6 Summary

389

(1)

Reference

389

(2)

APPENDIX A Spectrum Widths: 3-dB and First Nulls for Trapezoidal Pulses

391

(4)

A.1 Introduction

391

(1)

A.2 Rectangular Pulses

391

(1)

A.3 Trapezoidal Pulses: Equal Rise and Fall Times

391

(2)

A.4 Trapezoidal Pulses: Unequal Rise and Fall Times

393

(2)

APPENDIX B Some ELINT Considerations of FM Signals

395

(18)

B.1 Introduction

395

(1)

B.2 Effects of Sinusoidal Interference on Phase- and Frequency-Demodulated Signals

395

(3)

B.3 Signals with Sinusoidal Frequency Modulation

398

(2)

B.4 Carson's Rule

400

(1)

B.5 Modification of Carson's Rule for ELINT Applications

401

(2)

B.6 FM Demodulation Degradation by RF Band Limiting

403

(5)

B.7 Effects of Noise on FM Demodulated Signals

408

(4)

References

412

(1)

APPENDIX C A Frequency Hop Radar Example

413

(16)

C.1 Probability That One or More Pulses Occur at the Desired Frequency

413

(1)

C.2 Probability That Exactly One Pulse Occurs at the Desired Frequency

414

(1)

C.3 Probability That Exactly k Pulses Occur at the Desired Frequency

415

(1)

C.4 Probability That Several Pulses Occur at the Desired Frequency Less Than G Pulses Apart

415

(3)

C.5 Probability Distribution of the Interval Between Two Pulses

418

(9)

C.6 Determining an Optimum Receiver Sweep Rate

427

(2)

APPENDIX D History and Fundamentals of the IFM

429

(12)

D.1 The Broadband Microwave Frequency Discriminator

433

(6)

References

439

(2)

APPENDIX E Emitter Location Partial Derivatives

441

(4)

About the Author

445

(2)

Index

447

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Elint : The Interception and Analysis of Radar Signals

Summary

Author Biography

Table of Contents

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