Instrumentation for Engineering Measurements, 2nd Edition

, by James W. Dally (Univ. of Maryland); William F. Riley (Iowa State Univ.); Kenneth G. McConnell (Iowa State Univ.)

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ISBN: 9780471551928 | 0471551929
Cover: Hardcover
Copyright: 2/1/1993

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Stressing electronic measurements, this edition deals in considerable detail with the many aspects of digital instrumentation currently used in industry for engineering measurements and process control. New features include equipment used to manage different procedures, electronic and electrical principles important in understanding instrument systems operations, detailed descriptions of analog-to-digital and digital-to-analog conversions, characterization of signals and the processing of vibration data with a digital frequency analyzer.

List of Symbols

xvii

Applications of Electronic Instrument Systems

(23)

Introduction

(1)

The Electronic Instrument System

(1)

Engineering Analysis

(1)

Process Control

(8)

Process Control Devices

(6)

Experimental Error

(7)

Accumulation of Accepted Error

(1)

Improper Functioning of Instruments

(1)

Effect of the Transducer on the Process

(2)

Dual Sensitivity Errors

(1)

Other Sources of Error

(1)

Minimizing Experimental Error

(1)

Summary

(4)

References

(1)

Exercises

(3)

Analysis of Circuits

(25)

Introduction and Definitions

(2)

Basic Electrical Components

(2)

Kirchhoff's Circuit Laws

(1)

Diodes, Transistors, and Gates

(4)

Diodes

(1)

Transistors

(2)

Gates

(2)

DC Circuits

(1)

Periodic Functions

(4)

AC Circuits

(4)

Impedance

(2)

Frequency Response Function

(2)

Summary

(5)

References

(1)

Exercises

(4)

Analog Recording Instruments

(37)

Introduction

(1)

General Characteristics of Recording Instruments

(5)

Voltmeters for Steady-State Measurements

(5)

D'Arsonval Galvanometer

(1)

Ammeter

(1)

DC Voltmeters

(1)

Voltmeter Loading Errors

(1)

Amplified Voltmeters

(1)

Potentiometric Voltmeters

(1)

Voltmeters for Slowly Varying Signals

(2)

Strip-Chart Recorders

(1)

X-Y Recorders

(1)

Voltmeters for Rapidly Varying Signals

(20)

Oscillograph Recorders

(1)

Transient Response of Galvanometers

(6)

Periodic Signal Response of Galvanometers

(5)

Oscilloscopes

(4)

Magnetic Tape Recorders

(4)

Summary

(5)

References

(1)

Exercises

(4)

Digital Recording Systems

(38)

Introduction

(1)

Digital Codes

(2)

Conversion Processes

(1)

Digital-to-Analog Converters

(3)

Analog-to-Digital Converters

(6)

Successive-Approximation Method

(2)

Intergration Method

(3)

Parallel or Flash Method

(1)

Data Distribution

(3)

Bus Structures

(2)

Interfaces

101

(1)

Digital Voltmeters

102

(6)

Data-Logging Systems

108

(1)

Data-Acquisition Systems

109

(3)

PC-Based Data-Acquisition Systems

112

(1)

Digital Oscilloscopes

112

(4)

Waveform Recorders

116

(1)

Aliasing

117

(2)

Antialiasing Filters

119

(1)

Summary

119

(5)

References

120

(1)

Exercises

120

(4)

Sensors for Transducers

124

(38)

Introduction

124

(1)

Potentiometers

124

(2)

Differential Transformers

126

(3)

Resistance Strain Gages

129

(6)

Capacitance Sensors

135

(2)

Eddy-Current Sensors

137

(2)

Piezoelectric Sensors

139

(3)

Piezoresistive Sensors

142

(2)

Photoelectric Sensors

144

(7)

Vacuum-Tube Detectors

146

(3)

Photoconductive Cells

149

(1)

Semiconductor Photodiodes

149

(2)

Resistance Temperature Detectors

151

(1)

Thermistors

152

(1)

Thermocouples

153

(2)

Crystal Oscillators

155

(2)

Summary

157

(5)

References

157

(1)

Exercises

158

(4)

Signal Conditioning Circuits

162

(49)

Introduction

162

(1)

Power Supplies

162

(4)

Battery Supplies

162

(3)

Line Voltage Supplies

165

(1)

Potentiometer Circuit (Constant Voltage)

166

(3)

Potentiometer Circuit (Constant Current)

169

(1)

Wheatstone Bridge (Constant Voltage)

170

(3)

Wheatstone Bridge (Constant Current)

173

(3)

Amplifiers

176

(5)

Operational Amplifiers

181

(8)

Inverting Amplifier

181

(3)

Differential Amplifier

184

(2)

Voltage Follower

186

(1)

Summing Amplifier

187

(1)

Integrating Amplifier

188

(1)

Differentiating Amplifier

189

(1)

Filters

189

(5)

High-Pass RC Filter

190

(1)

Low-Pass RC Filter

191

(2)

Active Filter

193

(1)

Amplitude Modulation and Demodulation

194

(3)

Time-Measuring Circuits

197

(5)

Binary Counting Unit

197

(1)

Gates in Counter Applications

198

(1)

Triggers

198

(1)

Counting Instruments

199

(3)

Summary

202

(9)

References

205

(1)

Exercises

206

(5)

Resistance-Type Strain Gages

211

(42)

Introduction

211

(1)

Etched-Foil Strain Gages

212

(1)

Strain-Gage Installation

212

(2)

Wheatstone Bridge Signal Conditioning

214

(5)

Recording Instruments for Strain Gages

219

(8)

Direct-Reading Strain Indicator

220

(1)

Null-Balance Bridges

220

(2)

Strain-Gage Signal Conditioners

222

(1)

Wheatstone Bridge and Oscilloscope

222

(2)

Wheatstone Bridge and Oscillograph

224

(3)

Calibration Methods

227

(2)

Effects of Lead Wires, Switches, and Slip Rings

229

(5)

Lead Wires

229

(3)

Switches

232

(2)

Slip Rings

234

(1)

Electrical Noise

234

(2)

Temperature-Compensated Gages

236

(2)

Alloy Sensitivity, Gage Factor, and Cross-Sensitivity Factors

238

(3)

Data-Reduction Methods

241

(3)

The Uniaxial State of Stress

241

(1)

The Biaxial State of Stress

242

(1)

The General State of Stress

242

(2)

High-Temperature Strain Measurements

244

(1)

Summary

245

(8)

References

248

(1)

Exercises

249

(4)

Force, Torque, and Pressure Measurements

253

(40)

Introduction

253

(1)

Force Measurements (Load Cells)

253

(9)

Link-Type Load Cell

254

(2)

Beam-Type Load Cell

256

(2)

Ring-Type Load Cell

258

(2)

Shear-Web-Type Load Cell

260

(2)

Torque Measurement (Torque Cells)

262

(6)

Torque Cells---Design Concepts

262

(2)

Torque Cells---Data Transmission

264

(4)

Combined Measurements of Force and Moments or Torques

268

(3)

Force-Moment Measurements

268

(3)

Force-Torque Measurements

271

(1)

Pressure Measurements (Pressure Transducers)

271

(5)

Displacement-Type Pressure Transducer

272

(1)

Diaphragm-Type Pressure Transducer

272

(3)

Piezoelectric-Type Pressure Transducer

275

(1)

Minimizing Errors in Transducers

276

(4)

Dual Sensitivity

277

(2)

Zero Shift with Temperature Change

279

(1)

Bridge Balance

280

(1)

Span Adjust

280

(1)

Span Change with Temperature

280

(1)

Frequency Response of Transducers

280

(6)

Response of a Force Transducer to a Terminated Ramp Function

282

(3)

Response of a Force Transducer to a Sinusoidal Forcing Function

285

(1)

Calibration of Transducers

286

(2)

Summary

288

(5)

References

289

(1)

Exercises

290

(3)

Displacement, Velocity, and Acceleration Measurements

293

(63)

Introduction

293

(1)

The Seismic Transducer Model

294

(1)

Dynamic Response of the Seismic Model

295

(4)

Sinusoidal Excitation

295

(3)

Transient Excitations

298

(1)

Seismic Motion Transducers

299

(6)

Seismic Displacement Transducers

300

(1)

Seismic Velocity Transducers

301

(1)

Seismic Acceleration Transducers

301

(4)

Piezoelectric Force Transducers

305

(1)

Piezoelectric Sensor Circuits

306

(11)

Charge Sensitivity Model

306

(2)

Voltage-Follower Circuit

308

(3)

Charge-Amplifier Circuit

311

(2)

Built-In Voltage Followers

313

(4)

Response of Piezoelectric Circuits to Transient Signals

317

(3)

Accelerometer Calibration

320

(3)

Dynamic Calibration of Force Transducers

323

(4)

Force Transducer Calibration by Impact

325

(2)

Overall System Calibration

327

(1)

Sources of Error with Piezoelectric Transducers

328

(3)

Displacement Measurements in a Fixed Reference Frame

331

(6)

Displacement Measurements with Resistance Potentiometers

331

(4)

Displacement Measurements with Multiple-Resistor Devices

335

(1)

Photoelectric Displacement Transducers

336

(1)

Optical Displacement Measurements

337

(2)

Optical Tracker System

337

(1)

Video Camera Motion Analysis

338

(1)

Velocity Measurements

339

(5)

Linear-Velocity Measurements

340

(2)

Angular-Velocity Measurements

342

(1)

Laser-Doppler System

343

(1)

Summary

344

(12)

References

345

(2)

Exercises

347

(9)

Analysis of Vibrating Systems

356

(56)

Introduction

356

(2)

Temporal Mean

358

(1)

Temporal Mean Square and Root Mean Square

358

(1)

Sinusoidal Signal Analysis

358

(3)

Characteristics of Signals

361

(7)

Periodic Signals

362

(1)

Transient Signals

363

(3)

Random Signals

366

(2)

Lumped Mass-Spring Vibration Models

368

(5)

Undamped Natural Frequency and Mode Shape

369

(1)

Forced Vibration Response (Direct Solution)

370

(1)

Forced Vibration Response (Model Solution)

370

(3)

Continuous Vibration Models

373

(3)

Fundamental Equation of Motion

373

(1)

Steady-State Modal Solution

374

(2)

The Linear Input-Output Model

376

(4)

Impulse Response

377

(2)

Random Input-Output Relationships

379

(1)

Basics of a Digital Frequency Analyzer

380

(7)

Time Sampling Process

380

(1)

Convolution

381

(4)

Filter Leakage

385

(2)

Block Diagram

387

(1)

Using a Digital Frequency Analyzer

387

(9)

Relationship for Frequency Analyzers

388

(2)

Filter Characteristics

390

(2)

Four Common Window Functions

392

(2)

Uncertainty in the Magnitude of Spectral Lines

394

(1)

Summary of Window Use

395

(1)

Accelerometer Cross-Axis Sensitivity

396

(4)

Single Accelerometer Cross-Axis Coupling Model

396

(1)

Triaxial Accelerometer Model

397

(1)

Correcting Acceleration Voltage Readings

397

(2)

Application to Modal Analysis Signals

399

(1)

Cross-Axis Resonance

399

(1)

Force Transducer-Structure Interaction

400

(6)

General Two-Degree-of-Freedom Force Transducer Model

401

(5)

Summary

406

(6)

References

408

(1)

Exercises

409

(3)

Temperature Measurements

412

(61)

Introduction

412

(3)

Expansion Methods for Measuring Temperature

415

(1)

Resistance Thermometers

416

(12)

Resistance Temperature Detectors (RTDS)

417

(3)

RTDS and the Wheatstone Bridge

420

(4)

Thermistors

424

(4)

Thermocouples

428

(16)

Principles of Thermocouple Behavior

430

(4)

Thermoelectric Materials

434

(3)

Reference Junction Temperature

437

(2)

Fabrication and Installation Procedures

439

(3)

Recording Instruments for Thermocouples

442

(2)

Noise Suppression in Thermocouple Circuits

444

(1)

Integrated-Circuit Temperature Sensors

444

(2)

Dynamic Response of Temperature Sensors

446

(3)

Sources of Error in Temperature Measurements

449

(4)

Calibration Methods

453

(1)

Radiation Methods (Pyrometry)

454

(9)

Principles of Radiation

454

(2)

The Optical Pyrometer

456

(2)

Infrared Pyrometers

458

(2)

Photon Detector Temperature Instruments

460

(3)

Summary

463

(10)

References

465

(1)

Exercises

466

(7)

Fluid Flow Measurements

473

(48)

Introduction

473

(3)

Flow Velocity (Insertion-Type Transducers)

476

(17)

Pitot Tube (Incompressible Flow)

476

(3)

Pitot Tube (Compressible Flow)

479

(2)

Hot-Wire and Hot-Film Anemometers

481

(5)

Drag-Force Velocity Transducers

486

(3)

Current Meters

489

(2)

Turbine Flow Meters

491

(1)

Vortex-Shedding Transducers

492

(1)

Flow Rates in Closed Systems by Pressure-Variation Measurements

493

(6)

Venturi Meter

494

(1)

Flow Nozzle

495

(1)

Orifice Meter

496

(2)

Elbow Meter

498

(1)

Flow Rates in Partially Closed Systems

499

(1)

Flow Rates in Open Channels from Pressure Measurements

500

(3)

Sluice Gate

500

(1)

Weirs

501

(2)

Compressible Flow Effects in Closed Systems

503

(1)

Other Flow-Measurement Methods for Closed Systems

504

(8)

Capillary Flow Meter

504

(1)

Positive-Displacement Flow Meters

505

(1)

Hot-Film Mass Flow Transducers

506

(1)

Laser Velocimetry Systems

507

(5)

Summary

512

(9)

References

512

(2)

Exercises

514

(7)

Statistical Methods

521

(37)

Introduction

521

(1)

Characterizing Statistical Distributions

522

(4)

Graphic Representations of the Distribution

522

(2)

Measures of Central Tendency

524

(1)

Measures of Dispersion

524

(2)

Statistical Distribution Functions

526

(6)

Gaussian Distribution

526

(3)

Weibull Distribution

529

(3)

Confidence Intervals for Predictions

532

(5)

Comparision of Means

537

(1)

Statistical Conditioning of Data

537

(1)

Regression Analysis

538

(6)

Linear Regression Analysis

539

(2)

Multivariate Regression

541

(3)

Chi-Square Testing

544

(1)

Error Accumulation and Propagation

545

(3)

Summary

548

(10)

References

549

(1)

Exercises

550

(8)

Appendix A

558

(14)

Appendix B

572

(5)

Author Index

577

(2)

Subject Index

579

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Instrumentation for Engineering Measurements, 2nd Edition

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