Power Generation, Operation, and Control
, by Wood, Allen J.; Wollenberg, Bruce F.; Sheblé, Gerald B.
- ISBN: 9780471790556 | 0471790559
- Cover: Hardcover
- Copyright: 11/18/2013
Since publication of the second edition, there have been extensive changes in the algorithms, methods, and assumptions in energy management systems that analyze and control power generation. This edition is updated to acquaint electrical engineering students and professionals with current power generation systems. Algorithms and methods for solving integrated economic, network, and generating system analysis are provided. Also included are the state-of-the-art topics undergoing evolutionary change, including market simulation, multiple market analysis, multiple interchange contract analysis, contract and market bidding, and asset valuation under various portfolio combinations.
ALLEN J. WOOD joined Power Technologies, Inc., in 1969 as a Principal Engineer and Director. He was a Life Fellow of IEEE and served as an adjunct professor in the Electric Power Engineering graduate program at Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute. Dr. Wood passed away in 2011.
BRUCE F. WOLLENBERG joined the University of Minnesota in 1989 and made original contributions to the understanding of electric power market structures. He is a Life Fellow of the IEEE and a member of the National Academy of Engineering.
GERALD B. SHEBLÉ joined Auburn University in 1990 to conduct research in power system, space power, and electric auction market research. He joined Iowa State University to conduct research in the interaction of markets and power system operation. His academic research has continued to center on the action of the markets based on the physical operation of the power system. He is a Fellow of the IEEE.
Preface to the Third Edition xvii
Preface to the Second Edition xix
Preface to the First Edition xxi
Acknowledgment xxiii
1 Introduction 1
1.1 Purpose of the Course / 1
1.2 Course Scope / 2
1.3 Economic Importance / 2
1.4 Deregulation: Vertical to Horizontal / 3
1.5 Problems: New and Old / 3
1.6 Characteristics of Steam Units / 6
1.6.1 Variations in Steam Unit Characteristics / 10
1.6.2 Combined Cycle Units / 13
1.6.3 Cogeneration Plants / 14
1.6.4 Light-Water Moderated Nuclear Reactor Units / 17
1.6.5 Hydroelectric Units / 18
1.6.6 Energy Storage / 21
1.7 Renewable Energy / 22
1.7.1 Wind Power / 23
1.7.2 Cut-In Speed / 23
1.7.3 Rated Output Power and Rated Output Wind Speed / 24
1.7.4 Cut-Out Speed / 24
1.7.5 Wind Turbine Efficiency or Power Coefficient / 24
1.7.6 Solar Power / 25
APPENDIX 1A Typical Generation Data / 26
APPENDIX 1B Fossil Fuel Prices / 28
APPENDIX 1C Unit Statistics / 29
References for Generation Systems / 31
Further Reading / 31
2 Industrial Organization, Managerial Economics, and Finance 35
2.1 Introduction / 35
2.2 Business Environments / 36
2.2.1 Regulated Environment / 37
2.2.2 Competitive Market Environment / 38
2.3 Theory of the Firm / 40
2.4 Competitive Market Solutions / 42
2.5 Supplier Solutions / 45
2.5.1 Supplier Costs / 46
2.5.2 Individual Supplier Curves / 46
2.5.3 Competitive Environments / 47
2.5.4 Imperfect Competition / 51
2.5.5 Other Factors / 52
2.6 Cost of Electric Energy Production / 53
2.7 Evolving Markets / 54
2.7.1 Energy Flow Diagram / 57
2.8 Multiple Company Environments / 58
2.8.1 Leontief Model: Input–Output Economics / 58
2.8.2 Scarce Fuel Resources / 60
2.9 Uncertainty and Reliability / 61
PROBLEMS / 61
Reference / 62
3 Economic Dispatch of Thermal Units and Methods of Solution 63
3.1 The Economic Dispatch Problem / 63
3.2 Economic Dispatch with Piecewise Linear Cost Functions / 68
3.3 LP Method / 69
3.3.1 Piecewise Linear Cost Functions / 69
3.3.2 Economic Dispatch with LP / 71
3.4 The Lambda Iteration Method / 73
3.5 Economic Dispatch Via Binary Search / 76
3.6 Economic Dispatch Using Dynamic Programming / 78
3.7 Composite Generation Production Cost Function / 81
3.8 Base Point and Participation Factors / 85
3.9 Thermal System Dispatching with Network Losses
Considered / 88
3.10 The Concept of Locational Marginal Price (LMP) / 92
3.11 Auction Mechanisms / 95
3.11.1 PJM Incremental Price Auction as a
Graphical Solution / 95
3.11.2 Auction Theory Introduction / 98
3.11.3 Auction Mechanisms / 100
3.11.4 English (First-Price Open-Cry = Ascending) / 101
3.11.5 Dutch (Descending) / 103
3.11.6 First-Price Sealed Bid / 104
3.11.7 Vickrey (Second-Price Sealed Bid) / 105
3.11.8 All Pay (e.g., Lobbying Activity) / 105
APPENDIX 3A Optimization Within Constraints / 106
APPENDIX 3B Linear Programming (LP) / 117
APPENDIX 3C Non-Linear Programming / 128
APPENDIX 3D Dynamic Programming (DP) / 128
APPENDIX 3E Convex Optimization / 135
PROBLEMS / 138
References / 146
4 Unit Commitment 147
4.1 Introduction / 147
4.1.1 Economic Dispatch versus Unit Commitment / 147
4.1.2 Constraints in Unit Commitment / 152
4.1.3 Spinning Reserve / 152
4.1.4 Thermal Unit Constraints / 153
4.1.5 Other Constraints / 155
4.2 Unit Commitment Solution Methods / 155
4.2.1 Priority-List Methods / 156
4.2.2 Lagrange Relaxation Solution / 157
4.2.3 Mixed Integer Linear Programming / 166
4.3 Security-Constrained Unit Commitment (SCUC) / 167
4.4 Daily Auctions Using a Unit Commitment / 167
APPENDIX 4A Dual Optimization on a Nonconvex
Problem / 167
APPENDIX 4B Dynamic-Programming Solution to
Unit Commitment / 173
4B.1 Introduction / 173
4B.2 Forward DP Approach / 174
PROBLEMS / 182
5 Generation with Limited Energy Supply 187
5.1 Introduction / 187
5.2 Fuel Scheduling / 188
5.3 Take-or-Pay Fuel Supply Contract / 188
5.4 Complex Take-or-Pay Fuel Supply Models / 194
5.4.1 Hard Limits and Slack Variables / 194
5.5 Fuel Scheduling by Linear Programming / 195
5.6 Introduction to Hydrothermal Coordination / 202
5.6.1 Long-Range Hydro-Scheduling / 203
5.6.2 Short-Range Hydro-Scheduling / 204
5.7 Hydroelectric Plant Models / 204
5.8 Scheduling Problems / 207
5.8.1 Types of Scheduling Problems / 207
5.8.2 Scheduling Energy / 207
5.9 The Hydrothermal Scheduling Problem / 211
5.9.1 Hydro-Scheduling with Storage Limitations / 211
5.9.2 Hydro-Units in Series (Hydraulically Coupled) / 216
5.9.3 Pumped-Storage Hydroplants / 218
5.10 Hydro-Scheduling using Linear Programming / 222
APPENDIX 5A Dynamic-Programming Solution to hydrothermal
Scheduling / 225
5.A.1 Dynamic Programming Example / 227
5.A.1.1 Procedure / 228
5.A.1.2 Extension to Other Cases / 231
5.A.1.3 Dynamic-Programming Solution to Multiple Hydroplant
Problem / 232
PROBLEMS / 234
6 Transmission System Effects 243
6.1 Introduction / 243
6.2 Conversion of Equipment Data to Bus and Branch Data / 247
6.3 Substation Bus Processing / 248
6.4 Equipment Modeling / 248
6.5 Dispatcher Power Flow for Operational Planning / 251
6.6 Conservation of Energy (Tellegen’s Theorem) / 252
6.7 Existing Power Flow Techniques / 253
6.8 The Newton–Raphson Method Using the Augmented
Jacobian Matrix / 254
6.8.1 Power Flow Statement / 254
6.9 Mathematical Overview / 257
6.10 AC System Control Modeling / 259
6.11 Local Voltage Control / 259
6.12 Modeling of Transmission Lines and Transformers / 259
6.12.1 Transmission Line Flow Equations / 259
6.12.2 Transformer Flow Equations / 260
6.13 HVDC links / 261
6.13.1 Modeling of HVDC Converters
and FACT Devices / 264
6.13.2 Definition of Angular Relationships in
HVDC Converters / 264
6.13.3 Power Equations for a Six-Pole HVDC
Converter / 264
6.14 Brief Review of Jacobian Matrix Processing / 267
6.15 Example 6A: AC Power Flow Case / 269
6.16 The Decoupled Power Flow / 271
6.17 The Gauss–Seidel Method / 275
6.18 The “DC” or Linear Power Flow / 277
6.18.1 DC Power Flow Calculation / 277
6.18.2 Example 6B: DC Power Flow Example on the
Six-Bus Sample System / 278
6.19 Unified Eliminated Variable Hvdc Method / 278
6.19.1 Changes to Jacobian Matrix Reduced / 279
6.19.2 Control Modes / 280
6.19.3 Analytical Elimination / 280
6.19.4 Control Mode Switching / 283
6.19.5 Bipolar and 12-Pulse Converters / 283
6.20 Transmission Losses / 284
6.20.1 A Two-Generator System Example / 284
6.20.2 Coordination Equations, Incremental Losses,
and Penalty Factors / 286
6.21 Discussion of Reference Bus Penalty Factors / 288
6.22 Bus Penalty Factors Direct from the AC Power Flow / 289
PROBLEMS / 291
7 Power System Security 296
7.1 Introduction / 296
7.2 Factors Affecting Power System Security / 301
7.3 Contingency Analysis: Detection of Network Problems / 301
7.3.1 Generation Outages / 301
7.3.2 Transmission Outages / 302
xii contents
7.4 An Overview of Security Analysis / 306
7.4.1 Linear Sensitivity Factors / 307
7.5 Monitoring Power Transactions Using “Flowgates” / 313
7.6 Voltage Collapse / 315
7.6.1 AC Power Flow Methods / 317
7.6.2 Contingency Selection / 320
7.6.3 Concentric Relaxation / 323
7.6.4 Bounding / 325
7.6.5 Adaptive Localization / 325
APPENDIX 7A AC Power Flow Sample Cases / 327
APPENDIX 7B Calculation of Network Sensitivity Factors / 336
7B.1 Calculation of PTDF Factors / 336
7B.2 Calculation of LODF Factors / 339
7B.2.1 Special Cases / 341
7B.3 Compensated PTDF Factors / 343
Problems / 343
References / 349
8 Optimal Power Flow 350
8.1 Introduction / 350
8.2 The Economic Dispatch Formulation / 351
8.3 The Optimal Power Flow Calculation Combining
Economic Dispatch and the Power Flow / 352
8.4 Optimal Power Flow Using the DC Power Flow / 354
8.5 Example 8A: Solution of the DC Power Flow OPF / 356
8.6 Example 8B: DCOPF with Transmission Line
Limit Imposed / 361
8.7 Formal Solution of the DCOPF / 365
8.8 Adding Line Flow Constraints to the Linear
Programming Solution / 365
8.8.1 Solving the DCOPF Using Quadratic Programming / 367
8.9 Solution of the ACOPF / 368
8.10 Algorithms for Solution of the ACOPF / 369
8.11 Relationship Between LMP, Incremental Losses,
and Line Flow Constraints / 376
8.11.1 Locational Marginal Price at a Bus with No Lines
Being Held at Limit / 377
8.11.2 Locational Marginal Price with a Line Held at its Limit / 378
8.12 Security-Constrained OPF / 382
8.12.1 Security Constrained OPF Using the DC Power Flow
and Quadratic Programming / 384
8.12.2 DC Power Flow / 385
8.12.3 Line Flow Limits / 385
8.12.4 Contingency Limits / 386
APPENDIX 8A Interior Point Method / 391
APPENDIX 8B Data for the 12-Bus System / 393
APPENDIX 8C Line Flow Sensitivity Factors / 395
APPENDIX 8D Linear Sensitivity Analysis of the
AC Power Flow / 397
PROBLEMS / 399
9 Introduction to State Estimation in Power Systems 403
9.1 Introduction / 403
9.2 Power System State Estimation / 404
9.3 Maximum Likelihood Weighted Least-Squares
Estimation / 408
9.3.1 Introduction / 408
9.3.2 Maximum Likelihood Concepts / 410
9.3.3 Matrix Formulation / 414
9.3.4 An Example of Weighted Least-Squares
State Estimation / 417
9.4 State Estimation of an Ac Network / 421
9.4.1 Development of Method / 421
9.4.2 Typical Results of State Estimation on an
AC Network / 424
9.5 State Estimation by Orthogonal Decomposition / 428
9.5.1 The Orthogonal Decomposition Algorithm / 431
9.6 An Introduction to Advanced Topics in State Estimation / 435
9.6.1 Sources of Error in State Estimation / 435
9.6.2 Detection and Identification of Bad Measurements / 436
9.6.3 Estimation of Quantities Not Being Measured / 443
9.6.4 Network Observability and Pseudo-measurements / 444
9.7 The Use of Phasor Measurement Units (PMUS) / 447
9.8 Application of Power Systems State Estimation / 451
9.9 Importance of Data Verification and Validation / 454
9.10 Power System Control Centers / 454
APPENDIX 9A Derivation of Least-Squares Equations / 456
9A.1 The Overdetermined Case (Nm > Ns) / 457
9A.2 The Fully Determined Case (Nm = Ns) / 462
9A.3 The Underdetermined Case (Nm < Ns) / 462
PROBLEMS / 464
10 Control of Generation 468
10.1 Introduction / 468
10.2 Generator Model / 470
10.3 Load Model / 473
10.4 Prime-Mover Model / 475
10.5 Governor Model / 476
10.6 Tie-Line Model / 481
10.7 Generation Control / 485
10.7.1 Supplementary Control Action / 485
10.7.2 Tie-Line Control / 486
10.7.3 Generation Allocation / 489
10.7.4 Automatic Generation Control (AGC)
Implementation / 491
10.7.5 AGC Features / 495
10.7.6 NERC Generation Control Criteria / 496
PROBLEMS / 497
References / 500
11 Interchange, Pooling, Brokers, and Auctions 501
11.1 Introduction / 501
11.2 Interchange Contracts / 504
11.2.1 Energy / 504
11.2.2 Dynamic Energy / 506
11.2.3 Contingent / 506
11.2.4 Market Based / 507
11.2.5 Transmission Use / 508
11.2.6 Reliability / 517
11.3 Energy Interchange between Utilities / 517
11.4 Interutility Economy Energy Evaluation / 521
11.5 Interchange Evaluation with Unit Commitment / 522
11.6 Multiple Utility Interchange Transactions—Wheeling / 523
11.7 Power Pools / 526
11.8 The Energy-Broker System / 529
11.9 Transmission Capability General Issues / 533
11.10 Available Transfer Capability and Flowgates / 535
11.10.1 Definitions / 536
11.10.2 Process / 539
11.10.3 Calculation ATC Methodology / 540
11.11 Security Constrained Unit Commitment (SCUC) / 550
11.11.1 Loads and Generation in a Spot Market Auction / 550
11.11.2 Shape of the Two Functions / 552
11.11.3 Meaning of the Lagrange Multipliers / 553
11.11.4 The Day-Ahead Market Dispatch / 554
11.12 Auction Emulation using Network LP / 555
11.13 Sealed Bid Discrete Auctions / 555
PROBLEMS / 560
12 Short-Term Demand Forecasting 566
12.1 Perspective / 566
12.2 Analytic Methods / 569
12.3 Demand Models / 571
12.4 Commodity Price Forecasting / 572
12.5 Forecasting Errors / 573
12.6 System Identification / 573
12.7 Econometric Models / 574
12.7.1 Linear Environmental Model / 574
12.7.2 Weather-Sensitive Models / 576
12.8 Time Series / 578
12.8.1 Time Series Models Seasonal Component / 578
12.8.2 Auto-Regressive (AR) / 580
12.8.3 Moving Average (MA) / 581
12.8.4 Auto-Regressive Moving Average (ARMA):
Box-Jenkins / 582
12.8.5 Auto-Regressive Integrated Moving-Average
(ARIMA): Box-Jenkins / 584
12.8.6 Others (ARMAX, ARIMAX, SARMAX, NARMA) / 585
12.9 Time Series Model Development / 585
12.9.1 Base Demand Models / 586
12.9.2 Trend Models / 586
12.9.3 Linear Regression Method / 586
12.9.4 Seasonal Models / 588
12.9.5 Stationarity / 588
12.9.6 WLS Estimation Process / 590
12.9.7 Order and Variance Estimation / 591
12.9.8 Yule-Walker Equations / 592
12.9.9 Durbin-Levinson Algorithm / 595
12.9.10 Innovations Estimation for MA and ARMA
Processes / 598
12.9.11 ARIMA Overall Process / 600
12.10 Artificial Neural Networks / 603
12.10.1 Introduction to Artificial Neural Networks / 604
12.10.2 Artificial Neurons / 605
12.10.3 Neural network applications / 606
12.10.4 Hopfield Neural Networks / 606
12.10.5 Feed-Forward Networks / 607
12.10.6 Back-Propagation Algorithm / 610
12.10.7 Interior Point Linear Programming Algorithms / 613
12.11 Model Integration / 614
12.12 Demand Prediction / 614
12.12.1 Hourly System Demand Forecasts / 615
12.12.2 One-Step Ahead Forecasts / 615
12.12.3 Hourly Bus Demand Forecasts / 616
12.13 Conclusion / 616
PROBLEMS / 617
Index 620
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