Microplastics in Urban Water Management

Enables readers to understand the true occurrence and fate of microplastics in drinking water, wastewater and sludge, and receiving water

Microplastics in Urban Water Management focuses on the occurrence, fate, effect, and removal of microplastics in the urban water management systems, summarizing relevant methods for enhancing microplastics removal and degradation, providing comprehensive data from source to sink (including occurrence and fate of microplastics in urban water management), and covering practical applications, which are expected to provide some theoretical guidance for controlling or mitigating microplastics pollution and its environmental risks.

The work also includes detailed multidisciplinary information on the way in which microplastics behave in urban water management, plus recent advances of nanoplastics, i.e., nano-sized microplastics, in the aquatic environment.

In Microplastics in Urban Water Management, readers can expect to find detailed information on sample topics such as:

• Techniques for microplastics detection, including sample collection, purification, identification, and quantitation, plus the definition, emergence, occurrence, and removal of microplastics
• Elements of microplastics in wastewater treatment plants; for instance, the ecotoxicological effect on the biological treatment of wastewater and sludge
• Why the discharge of microplastics from wastewater treatment plants is the important source of microplastics in the receiving waters
• Potential environmental risks of microplastic contamination in receiving water systems and evidence that microplastics can absorb, collect and transport environmental contaminants as vectors

For practicing toxicologists, biologists, environmental and chemical engineers, and ecology professionals, as well as researchers and graduate students in these disciplines, Microplastics in Urban Water Management is an essential all-in-one guide to understanding the current state of microplastics in our world and potential solutions for the future.

Bing-Jie Ni, PhD, is a Full Professor of the School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Technology Sydney, Australia. He has been working in the field of sustainable urban water management, particularly the interface between process engineering and environmental biotechnology. He is currently the Lead Guest Editor of Water Research, the Editorial Advisory Board of Environmental Science and Technology, the Editor of Sustainable Horizons, the Associate Editor of Journal of Cleaner Production, the Associate Editor of Journal Environmental Management, a member of the Editorial Advisory Board of Current Opinion in Green and Sustainable Chemistry, a member of the Editorial Advisory Board of Journal of Hazardous Materials Advances, and a member of the Editorial Advisory Board of Environmental Technology.

Qiuxiang Xu, PhD, is currently a Senior Research Fellow in the Department of Environmental Engineering, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tongji University, China. His main research focus was on the behaviors of environmental pollutants such as microplastics, antibiotics, heavy metals and endocrine disrupting compounds in the treatment of sewage sludge and wastewater, as well as the effect of microplastics on the fate of antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs).

Wei Wei, PhD, is currently an Australian Research Council (ARC) DECRA Fellow & Lecturer at School of Civil and Environmental Engineering of UTS. In 2018 Dr. Wei awarded an Outstanding PhD Award from Chinese Education Department. Dr. Wei has been working in the field of environmental biotechnology and wastewater/ sludge treatment, particularly focusing on the development/application of innovative and sustainable techniques to achieve sewage sludge reduction and energy recovery, environmental toxicology of emerging contaminants (e.g., microplastics, nanoplastics) in wastewater/sludge, and biotechnologies for wastewater purification.

Notes of Contributors xiii

Preface xvii

1 Techniques for Microplastics Detection in Urban Water Systems 1
Xiaowei Li, Man Li, Lulu Liu, and Xiang Huang

1.1 Introduction 1

1.2 Sample Collection and Separation 1

1.2.1 Freshwater Samples 1

1.2.2 Freshwater Sediments 5

1.2.3 Wastewater Samples 9

1.2.4 Sludge Samples 12

1.2.5 Drinking Water Samples 14

1.3 Sample Purification 16

1.3.1 Wet Peroxidation 16

1.3.2 Enzymatic Degradation 17

1.3.3 Alkaline and Acid Treatment 18

1.3.4 Influence of Chemical Purification on Microplastic Property 20

1.4 Sample Identification 25

1.4.1 Visual Identification 25

1.4.2 Microscopic Identification 26

1.4.3 Spectroscopic Identification 27

1.4.4 Thermal Analysis 29

1.5 Quantitative Analysis 32

1.5.1 LD Method 33

1.5.2 DLS Method 34

1.5.3 NTA Method 34

1.5.4 Challenges in Particle Size Analysis 35

1.6 Quality Control 36

1.6.1 Internal Deviation 36

1.6.2 Judgment Error 37

1.7 Summary and Future Outlooks 37

References 37

2 Occurrence and Removal of Microplastics in Drinking Water Systems 53
Junyeol Kim, Yongli Z. Wager, Carol Miller, and John Norton

2.1 Introduction 53

2.2 What Are Microplastics? 55

2.2.1 Primary and Secondary Microplastics 56

2.3 The Emergence of Microplastic 57

2.3.1 Sources 57

2.3.2 Transformation 59

2.4 Occurrence of Microplastics in Drinking Water Systems 61

2.4.1 Abundance 61

2.4.2 Distribution 64

2.4.2.1 Size Distribution 65

2.4.2.2 Morphological Distribution 66

2.4.3 Composition 67

2.5 Removal of Microplastics in Drinking Water Systems 68

2.5.1 Water Treatment Plant 69

2.5.1.1 Removal of Microplastics by the Overall Process of Water Treatment 69

2.5.1.2 Removal Rate of Microplastics Depending on the Size 70

2.5.1.3 Removal Rate Depending on the Type of Microplastics 73

2.5.1.4 Removal Efficiency Depending on the Composition of Microplastics 74

2.5.1.5 Removal of Microplastics by Coagulation, Flocculation, and Sedimentation 75

2.5.1.6 Removal of Microplastics by Filtration 76

2.5.1.7 Removal of Microplastics by Ozonation 77

2.5.2 Microplastic Removal in Lab-scale Studies 78

2.6 Summary and Prospects 80

References 82

3 Occurrence of Microplastics in Wastewater Treatment Plants 91
Kang Song and Lu li

3.1 Introduction 91

3.2 The Abundance and Removal Performance of Microplastics in WWTPs 92

3.3 The Microplastics Composition in WWTPs 102

3.3.1 Microplastics Size Distribution 102

3.3.2 Microplastic Shapes 103

3.3.3 Microplastic Materials 104

3.3.4 Microplastic Color 105

3.4 Removal of Microplastics in WWTPs and Contribution of Each Process 106

3.4.1 Primary Treatment 106

3.4.2 Secondary Treatment 108

3.4.3 Tertiary Treatment 108

3.5 Summary and Future Outlooks 109

References 110

4 Effects of Microplastics on Wastewater Treatment Processes 119
Yan Laam Cheng, Tsz Ching Tse, Ziying Li, Yuguang Wang, and Yiu Fai Tsang

4.1 Biological Treatment Processes 119

4.1.1 Conventional Unit Operations and Processes 119

4.1.1.1 Suspended-Growth Processes 120

4.1.1.2 Attached-Growth Processes 122

4.1.1.3 Advanced Wastewater Treatment Processes 122

4.2 Interactions Between Sludge and Microplastics 123

4.2.1 Activated Sludge 126

4.2.2 Aerobic Granular Sludge 126

4.2.3 Anaerobic Granular Sludge 127

4.3 Effects of Microplastics on Microorganisms and Key Enzymes 128

4.3.1 Heterotrophic Bacteria 128

4.3.2 Ammonia-Oxidizing Bacteria 129

4.3.3 Nitrite-Oxidizing Bacteria 132

4.3.4 Key Enzymes 132

4.4 Effects on Sludge Stabilization and Dewatering 134

4.4.1 Aerobic Digestion 134

4.4.2 Dewatering 136

4.5 Perspectives 137

4.6 Conclusion 139

Acknowledgments 140

References 140

5 Microplastics in Sewage Sludge of Wastewater Treatment 147
Wei Wei, Xingdong Shi, Yu-Ting Zhang, Chen Wang, Yun Wang, and Bing-Jie Ni

5.1 Introduction 147

5.2 Occurrence 149

5.2.1 Primary Sludge 150

5.2.2 Waste-Activated Sludge 152

5.2.3 Dewatered Sludge 153

5.3 Effects of Microplastics on Sludge Anaerobic Treatment 155

5.3.1 Methane 155

5.3.2 Short-Chain Fatty Acid 156

5.3.3 Hydrogen 158

5.3.4 Enzyme Activity 158

5.3.5 Microbial Community 159

5.4 Transport of Microplastics from Sludge to Soil and Landfills 160

5.4.1 Transport of Microplastics from Sludge to Soil 160

5.4.2 Transport of Microplastics from Sludge to Landfills 162

5.5 Enhanced Removal of Microplastics from Sludge 162

5.5.1 Thickening and Dehydration 162

5.5.2 Anaerobic Digestion 163

5.5.3 High Temperature Composting 163

5.5.4 Incineration 164

5.6 Summary and Outlook 165

References 166

6 Discharge of Microplastics from Wastewater Treatment Plants 175
Hongbo Chen and Yi Wu

6.1 Introduction 175

6.2 Microplastics Concentrations in Effluent of WWTPs 176

6.2.1 Concentration of Microplastics in Effluent 176

6.2.2 Types of Microplastics in Effluent 176

6.3 Important Source of the Receiving Waters 179

6.3.1 River 180

6.3.2 Lake 182

6.3.3 Sea 184

6.3.3.1 Microplastics on Beaches and Coastal Areas 186

6.3.3.2 Microplastics on the Surface of Ocean Water 186

6.3.3.3 Microplastic Pollution in Polar Regions 186

6.3.4 Sediments 188

6.4 Uptake of Microplastics in Aquatic Organisms 193

6.4.1 Freshwater Organisms 193

6.4.2 Marine Life 195

6.4.3 Soil and Crops 197

6.5 Conclusions and Considerations for Future Work 198

6.5.1 Conclusions 198

6.5.2 Considerations for Future Work 199

Acknowledgments 199

References 199

7 Microplastics Removal and Degradation in Urban Water Systems 211
Qiuxiang Xu and Bing-Jie Ni

7.1 Introduction 211

7.2 Use of Separation-based Technology for the Removal of MPs 215

7.2.1 CFS 215

7.2.2 Electrocoagulation 219

7.2.3 Filtration 221

7.2.4 Membrane Separation 222

7.2.5 Adsorption 223

7.3 Photocatalysis Degradation of Microplastics 225

7.3.1 Zinc Oxide-based Photocatalysis 226

7.3.2 Titanium Dioxide-based Photocatalysis 227

7.3.3 Bismuth-based Photocatalysis 229

7.4 Chemical Oxidation Degradation of Microplastics 229

7.5 Future Prospects 231

References 232

8 Microplastics Contamination in Receiving Water Systems 243
Muhammad Junaid and Jun Wang

8.1 Introduction 243

8.2 Occurrence of Microplastics in Freshwater Resources 247

8.2.1 River Surface Waters 247

8.2.2 Lake Surface Waters 248

8.3 Composition of Microplastics in Freshwater 249

8.4 Factors Influencing the Aging of Microplastics 251

8.5 Uptake and Associated Ecological Impacts of Microplastics in Aquatic Organisms 251

8.5.1 Invertebrates 251

8.5.2 Waterbirds 253

8.5.3 Mammals and Megafauna 254

8.6 Interactions among Microplastics and Microbes (Bacteria) 256

8.6.1 Microplastic Biofilms: Formation Mechanisms and Characteristics 256

8.6.2 Factors Affecting Biofilm Formation 257

8.6.3 Role of Microplastic Biofilms in Genetic Material Transfer 258

8.6.4 Microplastics as Pathogen Carriers 260

8.7 Potential Interactions between Microplastics and Humans 260

8.7.1 Dietary Exposure 260

8.7.2 Exposure through Inhalation and Dermal Contact 263

8.7.3 Microplastics’ Toxicity in Humans 264

8.8 Implications and Suggestions 266

Acknowledgments 267

References 268

9 Effects of Microplastics on Algae in Receiving Waters 287
Dongbo Wang, Qizi Fu, Xuemei Li, and Xuran Liu

9.1 Introduction 287

9.2 MPs Induced Effect on the Algae: Growth and Populations 289

9.2.1 Effects of MPs on Algae Growth 289

9.2.2 Effects of MPs on Algae Populations 292

9.3 Factors Affecting Toxicity 293

9.3.1 Dosage 293

9.3.2 Size 295

9.3.3 Materials 295

9.4 Combined Effects of MPs with Contaminants towards Algae 296

9.4.1 Antibiotics 297

9.4.2 Heavy Metals 300

9.4.3 Other Emerging Contaminations 301

9.5 Research Gap and Perspective 302

References 303

10 Effects of Microplastics on Aquatic Organisms in Receiving Waters 315
Gabriela Kalčíková and Ula Rozman

10.1 Introduction 315

10.1.1 Occurrences in Water and Sediment 316

10.1.2 The Concerns about Potential Ecological Risks 318

10.2 Into the Food Chain of Aquatic Animals 319

10.2.1 Accumulation 320

10.2.2 Transfer within the Organizations 321

10.3 Toxicity to Aquatic Organisms 322

10.3.1 Decomposers 322

10.3.2 Producers 323

10.3.3 Consumers 324

10.4 The Sources of Toxicity 326

10.4.1 The Release of Plasticizers and Other Additives 326

10.4.2 The Adsorbed Pollutants 328

10.4.3 Physical Damage 329

10.5 Summary and Outlook 330

References 331

11 Chemicals Associated with Microplastics in Urban Waters 345
Yali Wang

11.1 Introduction 345

11.1.1 Chemicals in Microplastics and Its Fragments 347

11.1.2 Chemical Additives in Plastic Consumer Products 356

11.2 The Release of Chemicals from Microplastics and Environmental Levels 358

11.2.1 Phthalic Acid Esters (PAEs) 359

11.2.2 Bisphenol A 362

References 363

12 Interactions between Microplastics and Contaminants in Urban Waters 373
Tianyi Luo, Xiaohu Dai, and Bing-Jie Ni

12.1 Introduction 374

12.2 Sorption of Contaminants on Microplastics 375

12.2.1 Antibiotics 376

12.2.2 Heavy Metals 376

12.2.3 Organic Pollutants 380

12.3 Enrichment of Antibiotic-Resistant Bacteria and Antibiotic Resistance Genes 383

12.3.1 Single Selection 383

12.3.2 Co-Selection 384

12.4 The Effects of Environmental Conditions 386

12.4.1 pH 386

12.4.2 Temperature 386

12.4.3 Salinity 388

12.4.4 Weathering/Aging Effect 388

12.5 Joint Potential Risks 390

12.5.1 For Contaminants Distribution in Aquatic Environment 390

12.5.2 For ARGs and ARB Distribution in Aquatic Environment 391

12.5.3 For Aquatic Organisms 392

12.5.4 For Human Health 393

12.6 Conclusion and Recommendations 395

References 396

13 Nanoplastics in Urban Waters: Recent Advances in the Knowledge Base 407
Ilaria Corsi, Elisa Bergami, Ian J. Allan, and Julien Gigault

13.1 Introduction 407

13.2 Nanoplastics in the Aquatic Environment 408

13.2.1 Nanoplastics or Polymeric Nanoparticles 408

13.2.2 Formation Pathways of Nanoplastics 410

13.2.3 Source of Nanoplastics 411

13.2.4 The Behavior and Environmental Fate of Nanoplastics 412

13.2.5 Interaction of Nanoplastics with Contaminants 414

13.3 Interactions between Nanoplastics and Aquatic Organisms 418

13.3.1 Effects on Aquatic Organisms: From Microalgae to Fish 419

13.4 Ingestion of Nanoplastics in Aquatic Organisms 427

13.5 Concluding Remarks and Future Recommendation 429

Funding 430

Acknowledgements 430

Competing Interests 431

References 431

Index 445

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